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Abstract

Nanofluids are used to increase thermal performance in various applications of heat transfer. In the present study, to increase the performance of the cooling system, nanolubricant prepared with zinc oxide (ZnO) and silver (Ag) doped ZnO nanoparticles were used. ZnO and Ag/ZnO nanoparticles were synthesized via precipitation and co-precipitation methods, respectively. The effects of Ag particles added to ZnO nanoparticles at the rate of 5% on thermal performance were investigated. XRD and SEM examinations of the synthesized nanoparticles were made in detail and their suitability was determined. Nanolubricants were prepared by mixing 0.5% and 1.0% (wt./wt.) ZnO or Ag/ZnO and 0.5% (wt./wt.) Tween 80 (T80). The coefficient of performance (COP) values maximum increased by 18.20% and 23.68%, respectively, in the use of mineral oil with added 1.0% ZnO and 1.0% Ag/ZnO nanoparticles in the nanolubricants. In the cooling system, the compressor work decreased by 18.71% using the nanolubricant prepared with Ag-doped ZnO hybrid nanoparticles at a 1.0% mass fraction.

Keywords

Heat transfer thermal performance refrigeration capacity hybrid nanofluid Ag/ZnO

1. Introduction

Nanofluids are used to increase thermal performance in various applications of heat transfer. The use of nanofluids for energy efficiency in these applications has also increased over the past two decades.¹ The high performance in cooling systems with heat transfer application is one of the basic requirements of today's industry. The thermal conductivity and thermal properties of work fluids, such as deionized water, ethylene glycol and mineral oil, which were used in industrial systems are insufficient. To increase the system performance, it is necessary to improve the convection heat transfer properties of these base fluids. Nanofluids are prepared by adding nanometer-sized solid particles to base liquids.^1,2

Nanofluids were widely used in heat transfer applications as a working fluid in plate heat exchangers.^3,4 For instance, Zheng et al. investigated the heat transfer performance of various nanofluids in a plate heat exchanger. They used Al₂O₃, SiC, CuO, and Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles at 0.1%, 0.5%, and 1.0% mass fractions in the base liquid while preparing nanofluids. They reported that the current experimental setup used in their study consisted of a nanofluid and a water cycle. Experimentally, Zheng et al. utilized thermocouples to measure fluid temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the plate heat exchanger to provide the necessary measurements. According to the experimental results, it was emphasized that the best results were obtained with Fe₃O₄-water nanofluid to increase the performance of heat transfer systems than other tested nanofluids.⁵

The reason for using nanofluids in heating and cooling systems should be shown to increase the heat transfer surface by adding solid particles in the liquid,⁶ especially alloyed nanoparticles use in nanofluid, nanolubricant applications.^7,8 It is seen that the particles in the alloyed metal oxide group work in harmony without reacting with the work fluids used in heat transfer applications. In recent years, hybrid nanofluid applications were increasing in heat transfer systems.^9,10 Huang et al. investigated the heat transfer properties and pressure drops of hybrid nanofluids. The authors utilized alumina particles and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) when preparing nanofluids. In the first step, they prepared a nanofluid using alumina nanoparticles of 40 nm size at 1.89% volume fraction in liquid base water. Marginal sedimentation occurred in this nanofluid that they prepared. Therefore, they conducted experiments with hybrid nanofluid by adding MWCNT at a volume fraction of 0.0111% into the nanofluid. They said that the hybrid nanofluid mixture that was prepared exhibited the highest heat transfer coefficient at a certain pumping power.¹¹ Hayat and Nadeem mentioned that nanofluids were used extensively in industrial applications. The authors prepared CuO/water and Ag-CuO/water nanofluids and they performed a numerical analysis of these nanofluids. As a result of the experiments, in the analysis of the nanofluid obtained by doping Ag particles into CuO particles, their findings showed that the use of hybrid nanoparticles increased the heat transfer rate on the surface and the temperature distribution in the suspension. CuO metal oxide, which is frequently used in nanofluid and nanolubricant applications, provided high heat transfer.¹² Moghaddam and Motahari prepared a nanolubricant by adding MWCNT-CuO hybrid nanoparticles into the base liquid SAE40 oil in their studies. When the results of the experiments were examined, they reported that the viscosity of nanolubricant prepared with nanoparticles in 1.0% volume fraction was 29.47% higher than the viscosity of pure oil. In addition, Moghaddam and Motahari performed analyses with an MLP network with two hidden layers. According to the artificial neural network model prepared, they calculated the R-squared and MSE values as 0.9966 and 0.00002081, respectively.¹³ Rashidi et al. stated that nanofluid liquids are used to increase thermal efficiency in heating and cooling systems. In their study, the authors examined experimental studies to increase energy efficiency in condensation and evaporation systems.¹⁴ Mesgarpour et al. have numerically modelled the boiling of R134a refrigerant flowing downwards in a vertical corrugated pipe. They stated that the heat transfer improved by 11% thanks to optimization.¹⁵ Srisomba et al. investigated the flow properties of R134a refrigerant flowing through a horizontal pipe using optical observation techniques. They discussed the void fractions for intermittent, circular and undulating flow.¹⁶

The use of nanofluids in thermal systems not only increases efficiency but also indirectly reduces emissions. Thus, it clearly minimizes negative environmental effects. When metallic or non-metallic nanoparticles are added to the working fluid, their thermophysical and optical properties improve. When these nanofluids are used in various renewable energy systems, they prevent negative effects on global warming, abiotic depletion, human toxicity, ozone layer depletion marine aquatic ecotoxicity etc. issues.¹⁷

Metal oxides are commercially provided in the literature we examined.^5,12,13 In this study, materials were synthesized chemically. The preparation of nanomaterials obtained by the co-precipitation method includes steps, such as precipitation, filtration, washing, shaping, drying and calcination. The most important step is precipitation, as the basic properties of the material are formed during precipitation.¹⁸ The base solution used during precipitation is also of considerable importance. As to a base solution, Na⁺, K⁺, NH₄⁺ hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates can be used as precipitation agents, although ammonium hydroxide is often preferred because of the absence of cation residue.¹⁹ In a study by Yurtdaş (2014), materials prepared with Na₂CO₃, NaOH, K₂CO₃, KOH and NH₄OH were characterized by XRD and XRF, and Na and K impurities were detected in experiments using other base solutions except for NH₄OH.²⁰

In this study, ZnO and Ag/ZnO nanomaterials were synthesized via precipitation and co-precipitation methods, respectively. In fact, these two methods are the same. The only difference in the co-precipitation method was that two or more precursor materials were used, while only one precursor material was used in the precipitation method. Ag particles were added to the synthesized ZnO particles in the metal oxide group. The aim of this experimental analysis is to describe the modifications in this fundamental coefficient of performance parameters, energy efficiency at the cooling system and thermal performance with the use of Ag/ZnO hybrid nanolubricant. In this regard, a hybrid combination of ZnO and Ag/ZnO nanoparticles was used with 0.5% and 1.0% mass fractions and a distilled oil-based hybrid nanolubricant was prepared. Preparation of hybrid nanolubricant using chemical methods makes a difference in this study. In addition, the use of hybrid nanoparticles synthesized in small sizes due to the addition of Ag particles known to have high thermal properties makes a difference.¹² T80 surfactant was added in the desired ratio in the solid-liquid suspension to prevent clumping and precipitation in the prepared nanolubricants. As a result of the experiments, the thermal properties of the prepared nanolubricant were examined, and the performance analysis of the system was made due to using the nanolubricant as compressor oil. In addition, morphological analyses of synthesized ZnO and Ag/ZnO nanoparticles were also made.

2. Material and method

2.1 Experiment system and uncertainty analysis

In this study, nanolubricants prepared by adding different concentrations of ZnO and Ag/ZnO nanoparticles in base liquid MO were used. The vapour compression cooling system used in the experiments was supplied by Deneysan. Some additions and changes were made to the system. The thermocouples were used in the inlet and outlet temperature measurements. The basic elements of the cooling system were modified. The image of the main parts and the experimental setup are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Schematic representation of refrigeration cycle and main parts of experimental setup.

Detailed information about the system and heat exchange areas are explained below. The refrigerant enters the compressor as steam, where it is compressed to condenser pressure. The fluid leaving the compressor at a relatively high temperature, while passing through the pipes of the condenser, cools down and condenses by giving off heat to the surrounding environment. After the condenser, the fluid enters a capillary tube, and the pressure and temperature drop significantly under the throttling effect. The low-temperature refrigerant then enters the evaporator, where it evaporates by taking heat from the refrigerated environment. When the refrigerant leaves from the evaporator and re-enters the compressor, the cycle is completed.²¹

Uncertainty analysis is a method of estimating uncertainty in an experimental and mathematical model. After obtaining data for an experimental and theoretical system, the uncertainty in the results can be calculated with a series of equations. Uncertainty analysis is formally based on mathematical operations.²² According to the uncertainty analysis modelled by Holman,²³ the uncertainty analysis of the data taken from the vapour compression refrigeration experiment system was made. The inlet and outlet temperatures of the compressor, evaporator and condenser, which are the basic elements of the cooling system, were measured using Pt-100 type thermocouples. The low and high pressure values in the system were also measured by Bourdon type oil manometers. After the data were taken from the experimental system through a data collector, the necessary analyses were made. The sensitivity and error rates of the measurement equipment in the system are provided in Supplementary Table 1.

2.2 Nanomaterials synthesis and characterization

Materials were synthesized according to the literature with slight modification.^19,24 For ZnO synthesis, Zn(CH₃COO)₂.2H₂O and NH₄OH were used as precursor material and base solution, respectively. The synthesis method has been briefly described below and schematic representation is given in Figure 2. Firstly, 8 g Zn(CH₃COO)₂.2H₂O was dissolved in 100 mL distilled water. The solution was heating at 50 °C and stirring. When the solution temperature reached the desired value, 30 mL NH₄OH was added for precipitate, followed by the solution was aged for 2 h. End of the 2 h., the resultant gel was discreted by filtration and washed with distilled water and then dried in the oven at 100 °C for overnight. The dried product was pounded in a mortar. Finally, the obtained product was calcined at 300 °C for 3 h. For 5% Ag/ZnO (wt/wt) synthesis procedure is the same. As a difference, 0.236 g AgNO₃ and 8 g Zn(CH₃COO)₂.2H₂O were dissolved together in 100 mL water. The rest of the procedure was the same.

Figure 2.

Schematic representation of ZnO and Ag/ZnO synthesis.

Before the use in refrigeration systems, the obtained nanomaterials were characterized using XRD and FESEM techniques.

2.3 XRD and FESEM analysis

XRD analysis were performed to determine whether the synthesized material was formed in the desired composition. The crystal structures of the samples were determined by Bruker D8 Advance X–ray diffractometer (XRD) using CuKα radiation with a wavelength of 1.5406 Å. Data were taken for the 2θ range of 20 to 80 degrees. Additionally, the surface morphology of the samples was observed by a field emission scanning electron microscope (Hitachi SU-5000). Before the analyses, specimens were sputtered using Pd/Au in Ar plasma. Observations were performed at 10 kV.

2.4 Properties of nanolubricants

When preparing nanolubricant, 100 mL mineral oil was used as the base fluid. Solid-liquid suspension was obtained by adding synthesis product nanoparticles in different mass fractions into mineral oil. ZnO nanoparticles in 0.5% and 1.0% mass fractions were used as nanoparticles in the first stage of the suspension. In the second stage, Ag/ZnO nanoparticles were used in 0.5% and 1.0% mass fractions.

Precipitation and agglomerations are shown to be the biggest problems in solid-liquid colloidal mixture. Therefore, T80 surface active agent was added to prohibit these flocculations in the suspension. T80 surfactant material was used at the rate of 0.5% by weight of nanolubricants. The chemical structure of the T80 surfactant material was shown in Supplementary Fig. 1.²⁵ It is important that nanolubricants should be mixed homogeneously. Thus, nanolubricants were stired with an ultrasonic bath (Kudos-Model: SK2210HP) and then nanolubricants were stired in a magnetic stirrer (Jeio Tech MS-32M). Information of nanolubricant preparation process is given Supplementary Table 2.

The heat capacities of hybrid nanoparticles and hybrid nanolubricant in nanolubricant were calculated theoretically. While making the calculation, the minimum and maximum temperatures of the compressor were used according to the nanolubricants prepared in 1.0% mass fraction in the experiments. The equation 1 and 2 used in calculations²⁶:

C_{P, ZnO} = 11.40 + 0.00145 T – 182400 / T^{2}

(1)

\int_{T_{1}}^{T_{2}} (11.40 + 0.00145 T - 182400 / T^{2}) d_{t}

T₁ = 291.45 K and T₂ = 325.95 K

C_{P, ZnO} = 357.94 cal.mol⁻¹.K⁻¹

C_{P, ZnO} = 4.39 cal.g⁻¹.K⁻¹

Likewise, for Ag nanomaterial²⁶:

C_{P, Ag} = 5.60 + 0 .00150 T

(2)

\int_{T_{1}}^{T_{2}} (5.60 + 0.00150 T) d_{t}

T₁ = 291.45 K and T₂ = 325.95 K

C_{P, Ag} = 225.15 cal.mol⁻¹.K⁻¹

C_{P, Ag} = 4.02 cal.g⁻¹.K⁻¹

Nanomaterial (5:95);

C_{P, Hybrid(Np)} = [(4.39*4.18*95) + (4.02*4.18*5)] / (95 + 5)

C_{P, Hybrid(Np)} = 18.27 kJ.kg⁻¹.K⁻¹

1% nanolubricant (Ag-ZnO) is;

C_{P, Hybrid(NL)} = [(12.8294 *1) + (4.18*99)] / (1 + 99)

C_{P, Hybrid(NL)} = 4.32 kJ.kg⁻¹.K⁻¹

3. Results and discussion

3.1. XRD and FESEM results

The synthesized pure and Ag doped ZnO nanoparticles are structurally characterized by the XRD, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

XRD pattern of ZnO and Ag/ZnO.

Figure 3 indicates the XRD patterns of pure ZnO and Ag doped ZnO films. The XRD patterns of synthesized pure ZnO at 31.6°, 34.24°, 36.12°, 47.5°, 56.51°, 62.76°, 66.29°, 67.82°, 69.05°, 72.55°, 76.97° and correspond to (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (200), (112), (201), (004) and (202) hkl planes, respectively. These peaks were well-matched with the 00-36-1451 PDF card number of ZnO. According to this matching, the unit cell of the synthesized ZnO wurtzite was the hexagonal structure. The Ag doped ZnO nanoparticles exhibited extra peaks at 27.95°, 46.24°, 55° and 57.34°, corresponding to (100), (200) and (211) hkl planes, respectively. These peaks were well-matched face-centred cubic configuration of Ag₂O nanoparticles (PDF card number is 00-076-1393).

FESEM is one of the most crucial characterization techniques utilized to examine surface morphology which provides important information regarding the growth mechanism, shape and size of particles. The surface morphology of pure and Ag doped ZnO nanoparticles is shown in Figure 4 (a)–(b). When the image is investigated, it is seen that structures with the same shape are formed. In Figure 4 (a), pure ZnO particles seem like a nanorod flower shape. It is presumed that, with the doping of Ag, nanorods became hexagonal shape. Additionally, randomly spread spherical Ag doping was detected and is shown in circular in Figure 4 (b).

Figure 4.

FESEM images of a) ZnO b) Ag/ZnO.

3.2 Evaluation of the coefficient of performance of the cooling system

A vapour compression mechanical refrigeration cycle was used in this study. There were two main parts in this cooling cycle. These sections were called low and high pressure zones. In the vapour compression mechanical refrigeration system, the refrigerant was compressed to high pressure in the compressor. The refrigerant comes out as superheated steam without a process change in the compressor. After the superheated steam compressor, it was sent to the condenser. In the condenser, the refrigerant condenses, giving heat to the environment. After the condenser, the refrigerant enters the evaporator in the form of wet vapour by throttling to the low pressure at the throttling valve. The temperature of the refrigerant sent to the evaporator is lower than the ambient temperature. Therefore, the evaporator draws heat from the environment and the environment was cooled. In the diagram where these events occurring in the vapour compression refrigeration cycle were best expressed, it is the pressure-enthalpy (Mollier) diagram. Thermodynamic calculations were made depending on the outlet-inlet temperatures and low and high pressure values of the main elements in the cooling system. The effective value in evaluating the efficiency of the system was the COP value. COP was calculated by equation 3.^21,27

COP = \frac{{\dot{Q}}_{E}}{{\dot{W}}_{C}}

(3)

{\dot{W}}_{c} = \dot{m} (h_{2} - h_{1})

(4)

{\dot{Q}}_{E} = \dot{m} (h_{1} - h_{4})

(5)

COP values calculated using different nanolubricants in the compressor from the main components in the cooling system are given in Figure 5. When the calculated COP values were examined, the highest COP was obtained when using a nanolubricant prepared with MO/1.0% Ag doped ZnO/0.5% T80. The highest COP was calculated as 5.64. Within the cooling system, the lowest COP was obtained when pure MO was used. The lowest COP value was calculated as 4.56. The COP value increased by 23.68% with the use of the nanolubricant at the appropriate concentration and property for the system.

Figure 5.

Coefficient of performance values.

3.3. Analysis of compressor outlet temperatures and capacity

In the compressor, the gaseous refrigerant was compressed. The compressed refrigerant was sent to the condenser under high pressure and temperature. Superheated steam at high pressure and temperature sent by the compressor was cooled by the condenser. The refrigerant discharges heat to the outside to turn into a liquid state. The refrigerant comes to the throttle valve after the condenser, where its pressure was reduced. Finally, the refrigerant coming to the evaporator draws the heat of the environment to be cooled and is absorbed by the compressor.^21,27 While calculating the amount of heat absorbed by the evaporator from the environment and the work of the compressor, the inlet and outlet temperatures and low and high pressure values of the cooling system elements were used. As a consequence of the utilize of nanolubricants prepared with different nanoparticles at different concentrations as compressor oil, these values have changed. The highest heat drawn from the environment by the evaporator was calculated as 127.51 kJ. h⁻¹. This value was obtained using MO/1.0% Ag/ZnO nanolubricant as compressor oil.

The changes in compressor outlet temperatures as a consequence of the utilize of nanolubricants with varied properties were given in Figure 6. The lowest compressor outlet temperature was 52.5 °C. This temperature value was obtained when using 1.0% mass fraction Ag/ZnO. Compared to the use of pure MO in the compressor, the compressor outlet temperature decreased by 12.56%.

Figure 6.

Compressor outlet temperature values.

Compressor capacity was calculated as 22.61 kJ. h⁻¹, as the lowest This value was obtained using MO/1.0% Ag/ZnO nanolubricant as compressor oil. According to the use of pure MO as compressor oil, compressor work decreased by 18.72%. The compressor capacity values were calculated for the system using different nanolubricants were given in Figure 7.

Figure 7.

Compressor capacity (kJ. h⁻¹).

The compressor capacities were calculated for the system using different nanolubricants were given in Supplementary Table 3.

In addition to the compressor capacity calculation, the compressor in the system is modelled in three dimensions and the torque calculation is made. The mechanical properties of the compressor are given by examining.

Table 1.

Compressor features using nanolubricants.

Compressor Model	QD91H
Power Supply	220–240V/50Hz
Displacement (cm³)	9.1
Cooling Capacity (W)	208/235
Rated Power (W)	183
Nominal Power (HP)	1/4
Motor Type	RSIR
Rated Voltage (V)	230
Number of Poles	2
Rated Speed (rpm)	3500
Operation Mode	Capacitor-Run Mode
Run Capacitance (uF)	35
Mechanical Shaft Torque (N.m)	6.30854
Efficiency (%)	73.7724

In the experimental system R134A Wansheng Lbp Refrigerator Compressor (QD91H) was used. The features of the compressor used in the experiments are presented in Table 1. While examining the mechanical data of the compressor, Ansys-Maxwell/RMxprt electromagnetic modelling software was used for calculations and modelling. Mechanical and electrical values and calculations are given in Table 1.²⁸

In Figure 8, the 3D model of the compressor and the initial angular velocity, moment of inertia and damping values used for the necessary analyzes are given.

Figure 8.

3d finite element analysis model.

As a result of the model, the output torque curve output for the compressor used in the experiments is as in Figure 9.

Figure 9.

Compressor output torque line.

In the literature, there were studies on the use of nanolubricants as compressor oil and engine oil. In the studies, TiO₂,^8,29 Al₂O₃³⁰ and MWCNT³¹ nanoparticles have been used extensively. Akkaya et al. calculated the COP value as 4.70 when using the nanoparticles prepared with TiO₂ nanoparticles in the cooling system.⁸ When Al₂O₃ was used as a nanoparticle, the COP was calculated as 4.53.³⁰ It was seen that different types of base fluids and surfactants were used in these studies. In addition, it should be kept in mind that the ambient conditions and compressor characteristics for the cooling system may also affect the COP value.

4. Conclusions

It was found that ZnO and Ag/ZnO nanomaterials were synthesized successfully. The reason why Ag np is added to ZnO; it is thought that Ag np's increase the heat transfer surface. When MO was used as the compressor oil, the COP value is calculated as 4.56. The COP value was calculated as 5.64 as a result of using the nanolubricant prepared with base liquid MO, 1.0% by weight Ag/ZnO as compressor oil. The lowest COP value was calculated when nanolubricant prepared with 0.5% ZnO by weight is used as compressor oil. The highest amount of heat absorbed by the evaporator from the cooled environment was calculated as 127.51 kJ. h⁻¹. While calculating this value, 1.0% by weight of Ag/ZnO was used in the compressor oil. The minimum heat absorbed by the evaporator from the environment was calculated as 126.66 kJ. h⁻¹. While calculating this value, 0.5% Ag/ZnO was used. The compressor element consumes the highest power in the cooling system. The lowest compressor work in the experiments was calculated as 22.61 kJ. h⁻¹. While calculating this value, 1.0% Ag/ZnO was used in the nanolubricant used. When MO was used as the compressor oil, the compressor work was calculated as 27.82 kJ. h⁻¹. When using more than 1.0% nanoparticles in the base liquid, precipitation was observed. It has been observed that the cooling system works safely with the nanolubricants prepared. In subsequent studies, metals with good thermal conductivity such as Au or Cu can be used instead of Ag. In these studies, the thermophysical and optical properties of nanoparticles depending on their size and shape can be examined and their effects on COP can be evaluated.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-pie-10.1177_09544089221094091 - Supplemental material for The impacts of synthesized Ag doped ZnO nano-materials on the energy efficiency of the refrigeration system

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-pie-10.1177_09544089221094091 for The impacts of synthesized Ag doped ZnO nano-materials on the energy efficiency of the refrigeration system by Mustafa Akkaya and Semih Yurtdaş in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering

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Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-pie-10.1177_09544089221094091 for The impacts of synthesized Ag doped ZnO nano-materials on the energy efficiency of the refrigeration system by Mustafa Akkaya and Semih Yurtdaş in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering

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Supplemental material, sj-docx-3-pie-10.1177_09544089221094091 for The impacts of synthesized Ag doped ZnO nano-materials on the energy efficiency of the refrigeration system by Mustafa Akkaya and Semih Yurtdaş in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering

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sj-docx-4-pie-10.1177_09544089221094091 - Supplemental material for The impacts of synthesized Ag doped ZnO nano-materials on the energy efficiency of the refrigeration system

Supplemental material, sj-docx-4-pie-10.1177_09544089221094091 for The impacts of synthesized Ag doped ZnO nano-materials on the energy efficiency of the refrigeration system by Mustafa Akkaya and Semih Yurtdaş in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors received support from the KMU-Biltem-Karaman/Turkey.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Mustafa Akkaya

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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, et al. Preparation and thermal properties of oil-based nanofluid from multi-walled carbon nanotubes and engine oil as nano-lubricant. Int Commun Heat Mass Transf 2013; 46: 142–147.

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