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Abstract

The regenerative braking capability of electric vehicles is strongly influenced by the health of the traction battery. As the battery ages, internal resistance rises and charge-acceptance limits decrease, restricting the amount of regenerative power that can be safely absorbed during braking events. This reduction in regenerative capacity forces a larger share of braking energy to be dissipated through mechanical friction brakes, lowering overall energy efficiency and increasing non-exhaust particulate emissions. This study develops an ageing-adaptive braking energy management strategy that dynamically allocates braking energy between the battery and a controlled brake resistor using a dual sliding-mode control structure. The framework integrates a vehicle longitudinal model, a state of health (SOH) dependent battery model, and discrete-time power flow equations to explicitly account for ageing-driven limitations on regenerative energy. The proposed system is evaluated under Urban, City, and Highway drive cycles for SOH values ranging from 1.00 to 0.40. Results show that ageing produces a significant reduction in regenerative capability and a corresponding increase in brake-resistor utilisation. For Highway driving, peak resistor power rises from 3.6 for a new battery to nearly 12 kW at SOH = 0.40, whereas Urban driving shows much smaller changes. The shift in braking-energy partitioning also reduces friction-brake actuation, yielding quantifiable environmental benefits. Depending on drive cycle and SOH, PM₁₀ reductions range from 0.0878 to 70 mg per cycle, with PM₂.₅ reductions up to 28 mg per cycle.

Keywords

regenerative braking battery ageing sliding mode control brake resistor dissipation particulate emission reduction

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Dynamic braking energy management for electric vehicle under battery ageing: A sliding-mode approach with environmental impact assessment

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