The structural crash stiffness analysis is an important part of crashworthiness evaluation for vehicle. However, the definition of the crash stiffness is confused, and the corresponding calculation methods are not uniform. In this study, a newly defined crash stiffness was proposed, and corresponding calculation (ESCS, equivalent static collision stiffness) method was developed. First, the basics of structural crashworthiness was explored. Second, a newly proposed crash stiffness calculation method and corresponding evaluation indicators were developed, which was based on the finite element method and energy principle. Meanwhile, the simple numerical example was performed to confirm its effectiveness. Finally, a finite element model of the BEV front-end system was established, and a physical crash test was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the crash model. Furthermore, the crashworthiness of the BEV front-end system was evaluated based on the analyses of crash force, crash energy, and crash stiffness. The results show that the proposed crash stiffness method can be used to evaluate structural crashworthiness, and the evaluation results were consistent with traditional crash force, crash energy, and other methods, which further verifies the effectiveness of the proposed crash stiffness evaluation method. This method also lays a foundation for further structural crashworthiness design improvements.
YuanXLiuXZuoJ. The development of new energy vehicles for a sustainable future: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev2015; 42: 298–305.
2.
DaiH. Fault diagnosis of proton exchange membrane fuel cell based on nonlinear impedance spectrum. Automot Innov2023; 6: 89–115.
3.
SunGTianJLiuT, et al. Crashworthiness optimization of automotive parts with tailor rolled blank. Eng Struct2018; 169: 201–215.
4.
LiuXReddiKElgowainyA, et al. Well-to-wheels energy consumption and emissions of electric vehicles: mid-term implications from real-world features and air pollution control progress. Appl Energy2017; 188: 367–377.
5.
WangDZhangJWangS. Crash energy management of vehicle front-end structures considering multiple conditions: modelling and solution method. Research Square, 2021.
6.
LiQQLiEChenT, et al. Improve the frontal crashworthiness of vehicle through the design of front rail. Thin-Walled Struct2021; 162: 107588.
7.
ZhaoGFLiuMMLiY. Safety research and lightweight design of electric vehicle battery protection device. Adv Mater Res2013; 724–725: 1366–1373.
8.
ZhangJNingLHaoY, et al. Topology optimization for crashworthiness and structural design of a battery electric vehicle. Int J Crashworthiness2021; 26(6): 651–660.
9.
GülerMACeritMEMertSK, et al. Experimental and numerical study on the crashworthiness evaluation of an intercity coach under frontal impact conditions. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Automob Eng2020; 234(13): 3026–3041.
10.
LvXXiaoZFangJ, et al. On safety design of vehicle for protection of vulnerable road users: a review. Thin-Walled Struct2023; 182: 109990.
11.
YaoRPangTZhangB, et al. On the crashworthiness of thin-walled multi-cell structures and materials: state of the art and prospects. Thin-Walled Struct2023; 189: 110734.
12.
BaroutajiASajjiaMOlabiAG. On the crashworthiness performance of thin-walled energy absorbers: recent advances and future developments. Thin-Walled Struct2017; 118: 137–163.
13.
ZhuTXiaoSLeiC, et al. Rail vehicle crashworthiness based on collision energy management: an overview. Int J Rail Transp2021; 9(2): 101–131.
14.
MalenDE. Fundamentals of automobile body structure design. SAE International, 2011.
15.
QiCYangSHuP. Magic cube approach application on crashworthiness design of front rail for weight reduction. Adv Mater Res2011; 308–310: 668–673.
16.
EsfahaniESMarzouguiDDiggesK, et al. Effect of increase in weight and stiffness of vehicles on the safety of rear seat occupants. Int J Crashworthiness2011; 16(3): 309–318.
17.
IsakssonEJonsénPSundinKG, et al. Correlation of vehicle crash model parameters to car properties in low-speed collisions: a design of experiments approach. Int J Crashworthiness2010; 15(3): 241–249.
18.
JenefeldtFThomsonR. A methodology to assess frontal stiffness to improve crash compatibility. Int J Crashworthiness2004; 9(5): 475–482.
19.
TabacuSPandreaN. Numerical (analytical-based) model for the study of vehicle frontal collision. Int J Crashworthiness2008; 13(4): 387–410.
20.
SahraeiEDiggesKMarzouguiD. Effects of vehicle front-end stiffness on rear seat dummies in NCAP and FMVSS208 tests. Traffic Inj Prev2013; 14(6): 602–606.
21.
SanchezMAbellanD. Development of new deformable barriers for testing vehicle performance in different crash configurations. Int J Crashworthiness2015; 20(3–4): 370–386.
22.
SwansonJRockwellTBeuseNM, et al. Evaluation of stiffness measures from the US new car assessment program. In: Proceedings: international technical conference on the enhanced safety of vehicles, Nagoya, Japan, 19–22 May 2003, vol. 2003, pp.13–17. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
23.
WågströmLThomsonRPipkornB. Structural adaptively for acceleration level reduction in passenger car frontal collisions. Int J Crashworthiness2004; 9(2): 121–127.
24.
WazeerADasAAbeykoonC, et al. Composites for electric vehicles and automotive sector: a review. Green Energy Intell Transp2023; 2(1): 100043.
25.
RenCLiuXYangX, et al. Crash topology optimization for front-end safety parts of battery electric vehicle using an improved equivalent static loads method. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Automob Eng2024; 238(8): 2396–2420.
26.
CampbellBMCroninDS. Coupled human body and side impact model to predict thoracic response. Int J Crashworthiness2014; 19(4): 394–413.
27.
SousaLVeríssimoPAmbrósioJ. Development of generic multibody road vehicle models for crashworthiness. Multibody Syst Dyn2008; 19: 133–158.
28.
KosticDvan EsRZwaansL, et al. Multi-body modelling of mechatronic systems with flexible and nonlinear dynamics. Multibody Syst Dyn2018; 32(4): 301–320.
29.
HanYYangJNishimotoK, et al. Finite element analysis of kinematic behaviour and injuries to pedestrians in vehicle collisions. Int J Crashworthiness2012; 17(2): 141–152.
30.
KammelC. Safety barrier performance predicted by multi-body dynamics simulation. Int J Crashworthiness2007; 12(2): 115–125.
31.
AmbrosioJDiasJ. A road vehicle multibody model for crash simulation based on the plastic hinges approach to structural deformations. Int J Crashworthiness2007; 12(1): 77–92.
32.
RenCMinHMaT, et al. An effective topology optimization method for crashworthiness of thin-walled structures using the equivalent linear static loads. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Automob Eng2020; 234(14): 3239–3255.
33.
NeptuneJABlairGYFlynnJE. A method for quantifying vehicle crush stiffness coefficients. SAE technical paper 920607, 1992.
34.
JiangTGrzebietaRHRechnitzerG, et al. Review of car frontal stiffness equations for estimating vehicle impact velocities. In: Proceedings: international technical conference on the enhanced safety of vehicles, Nagoya, Japan, 19–22 May 2003, vol. 2003. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
ZouKNagarajaiahS. Study of a piecewise linear dynamic system with negative and positive stiffness. Commun Nonlinear Sci Numer Simul2015; 22(1–3): 1084–1101.
37.
FehrJHolzwarthPEberhardP. Interface and model reduction for efficient explicit simulations-a case study with nonlinear vehicle crash models. Math Comput Modell Dyn Syst2016; 22(4): 380–396.
38.
WangGZhangYZhengZ, et al. Crashworthiness design and impact tests of aluminum foam-filled crash boxes. Thin-Walled Struct2022; 180: 109937.
39.
LiGXuFSunG, et al. Crashworthiness study on functionally graded thin-walled structures. Int J Crashworthiness2015; 20(3): 280–300.
40.
FangJGaoYSunG, et al. Dynamic crashing behavior of new extrudable multi-cell tubes with a functionally graded thickness. Int J Mech Sci2015; 103: 63–73.
41.
LiuCSongXWangJ. Simulation analysis of car front collision based on LS-DYNA and hyper works. J Transp Technol2014; 4(4): 337–342.
42.
DuLZhengH. Analysis and research on the mechanical characteristics of bus frontal impact based on simulation analysis method. In: Proceedings of the 3rd international conference on information technologies and electrical engineering, Hunan, China, 3–5 December 2020.
43.
OhlbergerM. A posteriori error estimates for the heterogeneous multiscale finite element method for elliptic homogenization problems. Multiscale Model Simul2005; 4(1): 88–114.
44.
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Investigation of Opportunities for Lightweight Vehicles and Their Impact on Vehicle Safety and Fuel Economy. Report No. DOT HS 811 692, U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2012. https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.gov/files/811692.pdf
45.
WangCLiYZhaoW, et al. Structure design and multi-objective optimization of a novel crash box based on biomimetic structure. Int J Mech Sci2018; 138: 489–501.
