This study investigates the Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) process for fabricating single beads from ER70S-6 steel under varying deposition speed and arc power. A combined experimental, statistical, and FEM approach is employed to evaluate the effects of arc power and deposition speed on bead geometry, specifically bead width, height, aspect ratio, and wetting angle. Using a Design of Experiments (DOE) methodology, nine single-layer beads were deposited at arc power levels of 1616, 2434, and 2839 W and deposition speeds of 5, 7, and 9 mm/s. The previously mentioned characteristics were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Furthermore, a FEM model based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and a two-phase field approach provided insights into the molten metal flow behavior and thermal evolution during deposition. A statistical optimization identified process parameters (arc power of 2592 W and deposition speed of 5 mm/s) that yield an aspect ratio and wetting angle close to literature-reported optimal values (2.50 and 60°, respectively). Experimental validation demonstrated strong agreement between predicted and measured values (aspect ratio: 2.70 vs 2.50; wetting angle: 58.80° vs 60.79°), confirming the accuracy of the developed statistical model.
ColomoAGWoodDMartinaF, et al. A comparison framework to support the selection of the best additive manufacturing process for specific aerospace applications. Int J Rapid Manuf2020; 9: 194.
2.
CasalinoGKaramimoghadamMContuzziN.Metal wire additive manufacturing: a comparison between arc laser and laser/arc heat sources. Inventions2023; 8(2): 52.
3.
KokareSShenJFonsecaPP, et al. Wire arc additive manufacturing of a high-strength low-alloy steel part: environmental impacts, costs, and mechanical properties. Int J Adv Manuf Technol2024; 134: 453–475.
4.
ShahAAliyevRZeidlerH, et al. A review of the recent developments and challenges in wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process. J Manuf Mater Process2023; 7(3): 97.
5.
HackenhaarWMazzaferroJAEMazzaferroCCP, et al. Effects of different WAAM current deposition modes on the mechanical properties of AISI H13 tool steel. Weld World2022; 66: 2259–2269.
6.
AliMHHanYS.A finite element analysis on the effect of scanning pattern and energy on residual stress and deformation in wire arc additive manufacturing of EH36 Steel. Materials2023; 16(13): 4698.
7.
RosliNAAlkahariMRAbdollahMFB, et al. Review on effect of heat input for wire arc additive manufacturing process. J Mater Res Technol2021; 11: 2127–2145.
8.
KimDOLeeCMKimDH.Determining optimal bead central angle by applying machine learning to wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). Heliyon2024; 10(1): e23372.
9.
ManokruangSVignatFMuseauM, et al. Process parameters effect on weld beads geometry deposited by wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM). In: RoucoulesLParedesMEynardB, et al. (eds) Advances on mechanics, design engineering and manufacturing III. JCM 2020. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Cham: Springer, 2021.
10.
TianCLChenJLDongP, et al. Current state and future development of the wire arc additive manufacture technology abroad. Aerosp Manuf Technol2015; 2: 57–60.
11.
FurukawaK.New CMT arc welding process – welding of steel to aluminium dissimilar metals and welding of super-thin aluminium sheets. Weld Int2006; 20: 440–445.
12.
WangZZimmer-ChevretSLéonardF, et al. Prediction of bead geometry with consideration of interlayer temperature effect for CMT-based wire-arc additive manufacturing. Weld World2021; 65(12): 2255–2266.
13.
MüllerJHenselJ.WAAM of structural components—building strategies for varying wall thicknesses. Weld World2023; 67: 833–844.
14.
SharifiSSFritscheSHolzingerC, et al. Selection of parameters for optimized WAAM structures for civil engineering applications. Materials2023; 16(13): 4862.
15.
LiuBLanJLiuH, et al. The effects of processing parameters during the wire arc additive manufacturing of 308L stainless steel on the formation of a thin-walled structure. Materials2024; 17(6): 1337.
16.
BenoitMJSunSDBrandtM, et al. Processing window for laser metal deposition of Al 7075 powder with minimized defects. J Manuf Process2021; 64: 1484–1492.
17.
NovelinoALBCarvalhoGCZiberovM. Influence of WAAM-CMT deposition parameters on wall geometry. Adv Ind Manuf Eng2022; 5: 100105.
18.
ManjhiSKSekarPBonthaS, et al. Effect of CMT-WAAM process parameters on bead geometry, microstructure and mechanical properties of AZ31 Mg alloy. J Mater Eng Perform2024; 33: 8567–8581.
19.
StinsonHWardRQuinnJ, et al. Comparison of properties and bead geometry in MIG and CMT single layer samples for WAAM applications. Metals2021; 11(10): 1530.
20.
TradOBen KhalifaAZemzemiF, et al. Global approach for optimization and control of CMT-Based WAAM for SS316L. In: ChouchaneMAbdennadherMAifaouiN, et al. (eds) Design and modeling of mechanical systems - VI. CMSM 2023. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Cham: Springer, 2024.
21.
Thanh HoangVOChristelleGFrédéricV.Proposition of a model to determine the process parameters for manufacturing thick parts with WAAM technology. Prod Manuf Res2023; 11(1): 2240871.
22.
LeVTDoanQTMaiDS, et al. Prediction and optimization of processing parameters in wire and arc-based additively manufacturing of 316L stainless steel. J Braz Soc Mech Sci Eng2022; 44: 394.
23.
HanYS.Wire arc additive manufacturing: a study of process parameters using multiphysics simulations. Materials2023; 16(23): 7267.
24.
KerberEFahrendholzJLBrell-CokcanS, et al. Dynamic WAAM: adaptive processes for equivalent contact surface (ECS) optimization. Constr Robot2023; 7: 309–328.
25.
ZhaoWWeiYLongJ, et al. Modeling and simulation of heat transfer, fluid flow and geometry morphology in GMAW-based wire arc additive manufacturing. Weld World2021; 65: 1571–1590.
26.
ShahoveisiSVahabMShahbodaghB, et al. Phase-field modelling of dynamic hydraulic fracturing in porous media using a strain-based crack width formulation. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng2024; 429: 117113.
27.
YangJKimJ.A phase-field model and its efficient numerical method for two-phase flows on arbitrarily curved surfaces in 3D space. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng2020; 372: 113382.
28.
MareauC.A thermodynamically consistent formulation of the Johnson–Cook model. Mech Mater2020; 143: 103340.
29.
FangXRenCZhangL, et al. A model of bead size based on the dynamic response of CMT-based wire and arc additive manufacturing process parameters. Rapid Prototyp J2021; 27(4): 741–753.
30.
SalehBFathiRTianY, et al. Fundamentals and advances of wire arc additive manufacturing: materials, process parameters, potential applications, and future trends. Archiv Civ Mech Eng2023; 23: 96.
31.
DinovitzerMChenXLaliberteJ, et al. Effect of wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process parameters on bead geometry and microstructure. Addit Manuf2019; 26: 138–146.
32.
XuXDingJGangulyS, et al. Oxide accumulation effects on wire + arc layer-by-layer additive manufacture process. J Mater Process Technol2018; 252: 739–750.
33.
SinghSJinoopANTarun KumarGTA, et al. Effect of interlayer delay on the microstructure and mechanical properties of wire arc additive manufactured wall structures. Materials2021; 14(15): 4187.
34.
SaadatmandMTalemiR.Study on the thermal cycle of wire arc additive manufactured (WAAM) carbon steel wall using numerical simulation. Frattura ed Integrità Strutturale2020; 14(52): 98–104.
35.
VoropaevAKorsmikRTsibulskiyI.Features of filler wire melting and transferring in wire-arc additive manufacturing of metal workpieces. Materials2021; 14(17): 5077.
36.
ResninaNPalaniIABelyaevS, et al. Influence of substrate temperature on structure and functional properties of NiTi walls produced by WAAM. Trans Indian Ins Metals2024; 77: 987–995.
37.
ZengJNieWLiX.The influence of heat input on the surface quality of wire and arc additive manufacturing. Appl Sci2021; 11(21): 10201.
38.
ZhangRJiangFXueL.Experimental study on wire melting control ability of twin-body plasma arc. Chin J Mech Eng2024; 37: 30.
39.
LuoLQianELuT, et al. Vision-based estimation of force balance of near-suspended melt pool for drooping and collapsing prediction. Sensors2024; 24(11): 3270.
40.
KuklaCDuretekISchuschniggS, et al. Study of rheological behaviour of stainless steel feedstock taking into account the thermal effects. 2015.
41.
MontevecchiFVenturiniGGrossiN, et al. Heat accumulation prevention in wire-arc-additive-manufacturing using air jet impingement. Manuf Lett2018; 17: 14–18.
42.
AyedAValenciaABrasG, et al. Effects of WAAM process parameters on metallurgical and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V deposits. In: Advances in materials, mechanics and manufacturing. Cham: Springer, 2019, pp.26–35.
43.
GufranMMishraAKumar SinghR, et al. Dependence of process planning strategy on deposition ratio in wire arc additive manufacturing. Mater Today Proc2022; 62(Part 6): 3468–3472.
44.
GrafMHälsigAHöferK, et al. Thermo-mechanical modelling of wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) of semi-finished products. Metals2018; 8: 1009.
45.
BonnDEggersJIndekeuJ, et al. Wetting and spreading. Rev Mod Phys2009; 81: 739–805.
46.
RíosSColegrovePAMartinaF, et al. Analytical process model for wire+arc additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf2018; 21: 651–657.
47.
ZhangHHuangJLiuC, et al. Fabricating pyramidal lattice structures of 304 L stainless steel by wire arc additive manufacturing. Materials2020; 13(16): 3482.
48.
JorgeVLTeixeiraFRWessmanS, et al. The impact of multiple thermal cycles using CMT® on microstructure evolution in WAAM of thin walls made of AlMg5. Metals2024; 14(6): 717.
49.
KumarPSharmaSKSinghRKR. Heat input and shielding environment effect on CMT-WAAM of IN718. Proc IMechE, Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science2024; 238(20): 10026–10044.
50.
KumarPSinghRKRSharmaSK.Effect of welding parameters on bead characteristics and mechanical properties of wire and arc additive manufactured inconel 718. Proc IMechE, Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science2023; 237(7): 1668–1691.
51.
KumarPRaj SinghRKSharmaSK.Effect of process parameters on wire-arc direct energy deposited Inconel 718 superalloy. Rapid Prototyp J2025; 31: 950–967.
