The best approach to appreciating the complex issues involved in public policy is to eschew single domains of specialist knowledge and instead apply three general principles of understanding. First, by establishing links between apparently unconnected specialisms; second, by adopting a conjectural approach of trial and error; and third, by framing policy questions in terms of risk and uncertainty. Finally, for those with leadership responsibilities of public institutions, a fourth factor needs to be recognized. In organizational life, political and managerial leaders need to realize that people are principally motivated to do well intrinsically and not mainly through external incentives.
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