Drink and drinking in early Jewish texts: Describing a meal in the World to Come

Abstract

Both the Hebrew Bible and extrabiblical literature consider food and drink to be gifts from the deity to be enjoyed by human beings, especially when they live according to the divine laws and in moderation. When it comes to extrabiblical early Jewish texts about the meal in the World to Come, one notices a curious detail: while the World to Come is portrayed as being one of utter abundance and joy, none of the texts actually describe the righteous as drinking. References to drinking natural water, fruit being turned into drink, or any other possibility for the human consumption of liquids are simply absent from these texts. How is this to be explained? This article investigates the possible reasons for the conscious or subconscious omission of a function of the human body that is most common to all human beings.

Introduction

Nourishing oneself, eating and drinking, is an important and crucial part of everyday life. From beginning to end, all living beings including humans need to put food and drink into their bodies in order to keep them alive. Feeding the body is one of the activities that distinguishes living from dead creatures. ¹ In addition to these biological facts, one also needs to take into consideration both the social functions of food and drink and the overwhelming evidence in the sacred Scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity (and even Islam) of nutritional abundance that God provides for the righteous. It is striking that the corpus of early Jewish texts describing a meal of the righteous in the World to Come has one curious lacuna: While the texts mention an abundance of food provided by God in that future world, they do not refer to any liquids or to any acts of drinking performed by the people who experience life in the World to Come, ‘olam ha-ba, or life in the final installment of history on the threshold to ‘olam ha-ba.

How is this to be explained? Why are notions of drink and drinking missing in these texts? If the World to Come is imagined as a place where the righteous dwell, how did the authors of these texts imagine the righteous to take care of the physical need for liquids? And, maybe more importantly, how did the ancient authors imagine the social and religious functions of food and drink to play out? How is the ritual of blessing the food provided by God to be carried out if wine is not available? ² Is this lack of drink and drinking a simple oversight or were drink and drinking omitted intentionally? And if so, why?

The focus of this article is on drink and drinking in early Jewish literature that describes the meal in the World to Come approximately between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. We will frequently look beyond this time frame, however, especially in regard to further developments in rabbinic literature. This article is limited to texts that describe circumstances in ‘olam ha-ba, the World to Come, or on the threshold right before it, an idea that became prevalent exactly during that time period and involved the imagination of many early Jewish writers, who were concerned with questions of the beyond and the hereafter. ³ The main discussion will begin with a summary of the early Jewish texts that describe the feast in the World to Come, then continue with a reading “between the lines” and search for possible traces of drink and drinking in these texts, and conclude by addressing some of the possible fears surrounding the issue in question that might have caused the intentional omission of this important detail. ⁴

Food and feasting in the Hebrew Bible and in texts about the World to Come

In biblical texts and in cognate literature, the human body is seen as the playing field for divine care or, alternatively, divine neglect. Images of food and eating as well as images of drink and drinking take up much space in biblical and extra-biblical material. ⁵ Often, it is the deity who provides nourishment for animals and human beings, ⁶ and many narratives that deal with God’s acting on behalf of Israel prominently feature feeding stories. ⁷

Among certain authors before the destruction of the Second Temple and before Christianity emerged, the literary trope of a sumptuous meal in the World to Come had already become prominent. Traces of this idea can already be found in 1 Enoch and in early texts at Qumran. In early Judaism, the idea experienced a renaissance and received additional impetus after the catastrophic events in 70 C.E., as well as in rabbinic literature, where details of it were depicted in ever-new colors by the rabbinic imagination. ⁸

The early Jewish authors who subscribed to the idea of a meal in the World to Come imagined this future world as a place where the righteous would enjoy fantastic foods, such as the ancient mythical creatures Leviathan and Behemoth, the mysterious manna, or fruits from the Tree of Life. ⁹ The texts focus on the abundant nature of these foods: the animals are imagined as being extraordinarily large, thus providing large amounts of meat; both manna and the fruits from the Tree of Life are imagined as being available in unlimited amounts, as they rain from heaven in a never-ending stream, or they grow on trees whose fertility never ceases.

Early Jewish authors also imagined several highly symbolic locations where this meal would take place, such as the divine mountain, the temple, or the Garden of Eden. ¹⁰ Alternatively, they extended the reach of ‘olam ha-ba beyond the limited scopes of those locations by referring to a universe-wide garden. ¹¹ All of these locations connect the feast in the World to Come to significant events in the history of Israel: the location where God dwells and provides divine laws for Israel, the place where humanity originally lived, the location that God intended to become the fertile soil on which God’s people are supposed to dwell.

The individuals or groups of people who, in the imagination of the authors of these early Jewish texts, were allowed to take part in this imagined meal, included “the righteous” who had either lived according to the laws of God in this world, ¹² had distinguished themselves through their ethical behavior according to the laws of God, ¹³ or who belonged to Israel, ¹⁴ which might—ideally—include all of these character traits. Occasionally, the early Jewish texts also name specific individuals present at the meal in the World to Come, such as Adam, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, or the so-called fathers of the Exodus. ¹⁵ Rarely, the Anointed One is mentioned, but he is usually featured in a very passive or preparatory role.

In the imagination of the ancient authors, the deity thus provides the righteous and the other guests who entered ‘olam ha-ba with special foods in great abundance, which they can enjoy in each other’s presence and in meaningful locations. This meal has a beginning but no end. It is characterized by joy and peace. Starvation, war, loneliness, worries, even death are absent.

The one thing missing in these texts overflowing with descriptions of an abundance of food for the righteous is a description of liquids and the act of drinking. The imagined rivers or springs are for the fertility of the soil; they are not explicitly said to provide water for the righteous to drink. ¹⁶ The texts do not describe wine presses or cups of wine, grape juice or new wine, beer making or beer consumption; even mothers’ milk is absent, both as an actual liquid and as a metaphor. This lacuna in the texts about the World to Come is especially striking as there is ample physical evidence for the existence of wine presses and even a quasi-industrial wine production in Palestine at the time. ¹⁷ One text mentions milk and honey, the biblical indicators of the promised land, which are also of a liquid nature, but they do not serve as drinks for the righteous. Nowhere are the righteous described as lifting up a drinking vessel in order to wet their palate. Nowhere do they bless the food with the ritual cup. There is no merry banter at the imagined table, of course no drunkenness, but also no friendly cheers in the World to Come. Is ‘olam ha-ba thought to be a dry world, in both senses of the word? And why does ‘olam ha-ba seem to be so different from this world when it comes to the availability and use of liquids for mere daily or medicinal use or for enjoyment?

Possible hidden references to drink and drinking in descriptions of abundance

Images of natural rain, water, and natural fruit trees

There are a few descriptions within early Jewish texts that depict the meal in the World to Come as taking place within an environment overflowing with water that either comes from springs or streams or from the skies. These types of water only benefit agriculture, and no text explicitly mentions that it could also serve as drink for the righteous.

Probably the oldest example of such a text within the text corpus investigated is a fragment from a Psalms scroll found at Qumran. One passage speaks of future abundance and the reversal of circumstances for “the poor” and “the God-fearing” (4QPs^f IX,8–14): ¹⁸

The heavens [will give] their dew, ⁹ and there will be no corru[pt dealing in] their [terri]tories. The earth [will give] its fruit in its season, and its [pro]duce will not fail. The fruit-trees [. . .] of their grape-vines, and their [spring]s will not deceive. The poor will eat and those who [f]ear YHWH will be satisfied. ¹⁹

Although physical satisfaction as described at the end of this passage would ideally include the absence of hunger and thirst, the text only mentions that the poor will eat. Drinking is not included here explicitly. The agricultural abundance provided by the earth and, in turn, by the deity, however, is caused by dew from the heavens and probably by springs of water (although the word is reconstructed here). It appears that the water coming from above and below is solely seen as the cause for this natural abundance but not the means by which the poor satisfy their physical needs. Or is it simply assumed that the righteous will drink as well, and any specific reference is omitted from the sentence for reasons of the poetic construction of the parallelismus membrorum?

Similarly, 2 Bar. 29:1–8, one of the prime early Jewish witnesses to the idea of a meal in the World to Come or on the threshold that leads to this future world, contains several references to rain and water that cause agricultural abundance for the benefit of future humanity. 2 Bar. 29:7–8 offers one example:

⁷ For winds will go out in front of me every morning to bring the fragrance of aromatic fruits and clouds at the end of the day to distill the dew of health. ⁸ And it will happen at the end of time that the treasury of manna will come down again from on high, and they will eat of it in those years because these are they who will have arrived at the consummation of time. ²⁰

Evening clouds containing the “dew of health” as well as the treasury of manna will rain down from heaven upon the righteous, the text imagines. But again, it stops short of mentioning that the human beings who jointly sit at the table of the World to Come will drink of that water. They will simply “eat of it” (verse 8) in ‘olam ha-ba. Yet, as will be shown in the next section, the text contains several references to agricultural products that could potentially be turned into liquid items and thus could become a drink for the righteous of the future. Is it simply assumed that the righteous will enjoy these types of liquids?

Images of natural (grapes) and fantastic food items (manna, fruit from the tree of life) that could also be liquids

Within its description of agricultural abundance, 2 Bar. 29 also paints the image of an abundance of grapes that can be turned into wine (2 Bar. 29:5–6):

⁵ The earth will also yield fruits ten thousand fold. And on one vine will be a thousand branches, and one branch will produce a thousand clusters, and one cluster will produce a thousand grapes, and one grape will produce a cor of wine. ⁶ And those who are hungry will enjoy themselves and they will, moreover, see marvels every day. ²¹

In this text, images of rain/dew lead to descriptions of worldwide abundance. This abundance, first described in verse 5a, is further specified in verse 5b by the vivid example of one vine bearing a thousand branches, one branch producing a thousand clusters, one cluster producing a thousand grapes, and finally one grape yielding one cor of wine. This theme of the vine that produces more than is ever imaginable is used several times in biblical and extra-biblical literature, and could theoretically lead to descriptions of drinking and merriment among the righteous. ²² In verse 6, however, only the hungry are mentioned, and not those who thirst and need liquid nourishment. Even the hungry are said not even to eat but just to “enjoy themselves” and to “see marvels every day.” All in all, the reader must notice a certain hesitation in regard to describing eating and drinking in this text. There certainly is a sensual amazement about the abundance in the World to Come (“enjoying,” “seeing”), but the texts stops short of painting images of “taking into one’s mouth,” “tasting,” “chewing,” “drinking,” and “swallowing.” Physical pleasure is minimized in this description; drinking is omitted altogether.

The text in 2 Bar. 29:7–8 continues,

⁷ For winds will go out in front of me every morning to bring the fragrance of aromatic fruits and clouds at the end of the day to distill the dew of health. ⁸ And it will happen at the end of time that the treasury of manna will come down again from on high, and they will eat of it in those years because these are they who will have arrived at the consummation of time. ²³

Here, manna and dew are compared: both appear repeatedly and regularly, and both come from above. The righteous, however, are said to eat the manna, not drink it.

Manna is, next to Leviathan/Behemoth and the fruits from the Tree of Life, another fantastic food regularly served at the meal in the World to Come. Because of biblical texts such as Exod 16:4 that describe manna as coming or raining from heaven, and because of rabbinic thought taking up that idea, manna may sometimes be understood as having some liquid qualities. Occasionally, manna is described as being able to take on any taste, such as in Wisdom of Solomon 16 or in the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, where it is said to take on the taste preference of everyone who consumes it, such as the taste of soup. ²⁴

Several other and usually late texts also mention manna as raining or coming down from heaven. The Apocalypse of Zosimus, a text usually dated between the first and fourth century C.E. and combining Jewish and Christian material, describes a journey of Zosimus to a paradise-like island (Apoc Zos 13:2):

And on each of the days of the holy fast God causes to rain down upon us from heaven manna (similar to) that which he gave to our fathers when he led them out of Egypt. ²⁵

The fact that manna comes from heaven is also mentioned in Visio Beati Esdrae, which is extremely difficult to date (usually between the fourth and seventh century C.E.), a text highly reworked in Christian circles. Chapter 59 of manuscript H reads (Visio Beati Esdrae 59): ²⁶

Here is light, joy, and health. And daily they have manna from heaven because they gave alms generously on earth. ²⁷

Aside from the note that manna comes from heaven, again, no indication is given that it is of a liquid quality. In neither example are the righteous described as eating or drinking it, only the reference to the “fathers” in connection with the exodus event hints at the fact that the manna used to be for human consumption (and might be destined for this again).

This hesitation in describing natural resources as turning into items of physical enjoyment, especially items used for drinking, can also be observed in the literature about the Tree of Life. In some extra-biblical texts and in rabbinic literature the idea exists that the Tree of Life, one of the fantastic foods in the World to Come, can also take on any taste or quality. In light of our question here, one wonders whether the Tree of Life was thought to provide drink and liquid products for the righteous in the World to Come, as manna potentially did as well. The possible evidence for this, however, is quite scarce.

Second Enoch, whose date has been much debated but which could have originated as early as 2 Baruch, ²⁸ is one of the texts that mention the Tree of Life in connection with ideas of a meal in the World to Come. Two text versions are extant of the passage in question:

2 Enoch 8:2b–5 (A-Version): And the four rivers were flowing past with gentle movement, with every kind of garden producing every kind of good food. And the tree of life is in that place, under which the Lord takes a rest when the Lord takes a walk in paradise. And that tree is indescribable for pleasantness of fragrance. And another tree is near it, an olive, flowing with oil continually. ²⁹

In this first version, the author pays much attention to the fact that the abundant garden watered by the four rivers produces every kind of food. The Tree of Life certainly bears fruit that could be turned into juice and possibly even an alcoholic drink; the note “every kind of good food” would certainly allow for that option. ³⁰ Then, aside from the Tree of Life, an ever-producing olive tree is mentioned as well. Yet, no drinking (or eating, for that matter) of the righteous is mentioned explicitly:

The second version reads as follows:

2 Enoch 8:3-5 (J-Version): And in the midst (of them was) the tree of life, at that place where the Lord takes a rest when he goes into paradise. And that tree is indescribable for pleasantness and fine fragrance, and more beautiful than any (other) created thing that exists . . . And two streams come forth, one a source of honey and milk, and a source which produces oil and wine. ³¹

In this second version, the author specifies the streams that flow through the garden. While there are only two streams and not four as in the A-version, one produces honey and milk, the other oil and wine, thus, at least two drinkable items and two more liquid substances, which might not be drinkable but rather are condiments added to solid food. The Tree of Life is not described as producing “every kind of good food” here as it was in the A-Version but appears to appeal simply to the eyes and the human sense of smell. Again, the author avoids talking about the righteous eating and drinking of the natural abundance.

Another example is found in the Apocalypse of Elijah that refers to a reversal of circumstances in the World to Come. The righteous are explicitly described as being neither hungry nor thirsty (Apoc. Elijah 38:14–39:15): ³²

It will be granted to them to eat from the tree of life. They will wear white garments . . . and angels will watch over them. They will not thirst, nor will the son of lawlessness be able to prevail over them. ³³

While the act of eating is mentioned explicitly, the word “drinking” is not used here. The passage does mention that the righteous will not thirst. Is this due to the parallel in Isa 49:10, which reads, “They shall not hunger or thirst,” which is also reflected in Rev 7:16: “they shall hunger no more, neither thirst anymore” ³⁴ ?

“New Wine” at Qumran

One text from Qumran mentions “new wine” being prepared for consummation at a meal of the community. 1QSa 2 is part of the so-called Messianic Rule or Rule of the Congregation. It addresses “all the congregation of Israel in the last days” (1:1) and contains rules and laws for the entire community that probably saw itself as being on the threshold to the World to Come. The passage in question reads (1QSa 2:11–22):

¹¹ [At a ses]sion of the men of the name (i.e., men of renown), [those summoned] to the gathering of the Yahad (i.e., community) when [ ] ¹² [ ] the Anointed One is with them . . . And [when] they gather [at the tab]le of the community [or to drink the n]ew wine, and the table of ¹⁸ the Yahad is prepared [and the] new wine [is mixed] for drinking, [nobody should stretch out] his hand to the first-fruits ¹⁹ of the bread and of [the new wine] before the priest, for [he is the one who bl]esses the first-fruit of the bread ²⁰ and of the new win[e. And he stretches out] his hand towards the bread before them. Afterwar[ds,] the Anointed One of Israel [shall stret]ch out his hands. . . And in accordance with this precept [one shall act] ²² at each me[al, when] (at least) ten me [n are gat]hered. ³⁵

Many scholars, especially in the past, have argued that this description is one of the prime witnesses to a meal in the World to Come. The reason for that is the presence of a messianic figure at the table, which is often interpreted as the determining factor for future feasting. As I have shown elsewhere, however, this text from Qumran does not portray the feast of the righteous in ‘olam ha-ba. ³⁶ It does not feature any of the typical characteristics of the meal in the World to Come: the typical fantastic foods, the typical symbolic locations, or a discussion who might be considered righteous in order to attend this meal. Instead, bread and new wine are mentioned, items that reflect this-worldly, albeit potentially festive foods. Also, the attention is on hierarchical matters, which are never an issue in other early Jewish texts about that imagined meal. In addition, the text emphasizes the role of a messianic figure who is rarely described as being present or active in early Jewish texts about the future meal. His presence is not an indicator of future eating.

Thus, it is much more likely that the text describes what has been called a liturgical anticipation of a meal with a messianic figure in the future, but not a full-fledged future meal in ‘olam ha-ba. ³⁷ Maybe, the early Jewish ideas of the meal in the World to Come influenced the authors, but it should not be considered a prime example of that motif. For those reasons, the reference to a liquid item, the new wine, should not be seen as indication of drink and drinking in the World to Come.

Responding to fears? Purposefully omitting references to drink and drinking

As there is no clear evidence that the texts describing a meal in the World to Come used hidden or less obvious descriptions of items that could be used for human consumption, one now needs to investigate the option that notions of drink and drinking were purposefully omitted in these early Jewish texts. There might be several different reasons for that omission.

No liquids, no alcoholic beverages, no gluttony?

The idea of the meal in the World to Come with all of its details is deeply rooted in the time and the context during which these texts originated. In the decades surrounding the turn of the era, both early Jewish and Hellenistic works show a great fascination with the festive meals of “the others,” particularly the festive meals of the Persians. ³⁸ Herodotus, for example, wrote that the Persians roasted and served entire oxen and horses for human consumption. ³⁹ Polyaenus provided a long list of foods served to King Cyrus on a daily basis ⁴⁰ and arrives at the conclusion that such eating is not befitting a successful warrior. ⁴¹ Xenophon reports that the Persian king sent out culinary spies into his large kingdom in order to find new foods and drinks for his own greedy palate. ⁴² Both the amount of food offered there and the selection of food, the location of the meal, and aesthetic aspects were of interest to the early Jewish authors, yet gluttony was seen with suspicion, and moderation was elevated as the higher good in Jewish culture.

In some of the early Jewish diaspora stories, this fascination with the opulence of the meals of the others was shaped into a story, a narrative, and was thereby turned into strict moral judgments. In the book of Esther, for example, the Persian King is portrayed as being “merry with wine,” while Esther and the Jews fast for 3 days. ⁴³ Daniel explicitly wishes to follow the contemporary Jewish food laws and lifestyle and refuses to eat from the king’s table at court. ⁴⁴ The call for a moderate lifestyle in the book of Tobit is part of a larger exhortation to live according to the laws of God. ⁴⁵ That this moderate lifestyle was not always the norm, even among faithful Jews, is proven by references to intoxication on festive occasions, such as the Sabbath that appear throughout rabbinic literature. ⁴⁶ Apparently, moderation in regard to food and drink, and adherence to the still developing Jewish food laws became—at least for some authors of early Jewish writings—was one way of distinguishing oneself from the other, a tendency that became stronger whenever Jewish identity was questioned or threatened.

Rabbinic thought also witnesses to the fact that there existed contradictory opinions about the World to Come from the very beginning. On the one hand, early Jewish and some rabbinic texts describe festive meals in the World to Come, in which both the quality and the quantity of foods goes beyond anything imaginable in this world. On the other hand, some early Jewish and rabbinic authors could not imagine that the righteous experience of the splendor of the World to Come would even include physical needs such as hunger or thirst. In b. Ber. 17a, Rav is reported to have stated: “In the World to Come, there is no eating and drinking.” There also was much discussion about the way Leviathan and Behemoth were killed, so that they could be served as kosher meat in the World to Come. ⁴⁷ Or were the righteous in the World to Come allowed to eat any meat, as they adhered to the contemporary Jewish lifestyle in this world? ⁴⁸ Even this matter received opposing views in rabbinic Judaism and maybe before that. As can be seen from these few examples, ideas about the World to Come were very diverse in early Judaism and beyond. Whether it may or may not include bodies and physical enjoyment such as the enjoyment of food and drink was a matter of debate that was not even settled in the Middle Ages.

Is the lack of drinking references in texts about the World to Come an expression of these opposing views in early Judaism about the nature of that world? Did the authors want to avoid the impression that the World to Come simply copies the festive meals of “the others” that both fascinated and appalled ancient Hellenistic and Jewish authors? Did the early Jewish authors who imagined the World to Come avoid allusions to drinking, especially to the consumption of wine, in order to make sure that the World to Come is one of abundance in natural resources but not one where ungodly gluttony was possible?

No liquids, no drunkenness, no sexual transgressions?

As shown above, the authors of the Hebrew Bible consider access to food and drink to be part of the good life lived under the umbrella of the deity’s favor, whereas hunger and thirst are signs of divine displeasure. Enjoying the material world by eating and drinking, however, is also understood to be temporary and conditional upon the correct human behavior.

A case in point is the Hebrew Bible’s attitude toward alcohol. Certainly, drinking wine can be a sign of merriment and enjoyment of divine grace. But it can also turn into alcohol abuse and drunkenness, signs of the absence of the deity’s favor that are not divinely condoned. Thus, abstinence is recommended. In Jeremiah 35, for example, the abstinent behavior of the Rechabites who follow their father’s command contrasted with the disobedience of Judah in regard to their God’s command (Jer 35:5–7). Hosea 4:11 blatantly states that “wine and new wine take away the understanding.” ⁴⁹ Occasionally, both in biblical and extra-biblical texts, excessive eating and especially drinking are even connected with death. In Amos 4:1–3, the women of Samaria, the so-called “cows of Bashan,” ask their husbands for drink, but in the end, God punishes their oppressive and luxurious behavior, which disregards the needs of the poor. ⁵⁰ In wisdom literature, drinking (too much) is seen as preventing one from gaining wisdom and knowledge. ⁵¹

In extra-biblical literature, similar thoughts are expressed frequently. In the Testament of Judah 16:1–4, for example, moderate wine consumption and obedience to the deity’s will lead to life, but excessive drinking where one loses the fear of the divine will lead to death. And rabbinic literature frequently warns about drinking wine and especially excessive drinking, as it leads to transgressions, often of a sexual nature. ⁵²

Is the avoidance of descriptions of drink and drinking in the early Jewish texts, describing a meal in the World to Come a response to these warnings prominent in biblical and extrabiblical literature? Did the authors, from the onset, want to avoid the impression that an abundance of alcoholic beverages might cause the righteous in the World to Come to be drunk, prone to lust and sexual transgression, or lose their connection with God?

No liquids, no ritual pollution, no ritual transgression?

In biblical and extra-biblical texts describing rules for the avoidance of ritual pollution, liquids appear to be of a specific dangerous quality. Blood ⁵³ , sperm ⁵⁴ , or oozing wounds ⁵⁵ are considered extraordinarily prone to polluting those who come in contact with them. Liquids are also in danger of becoming unclean and further transmitting uncleanness. Lev 11:33–34 states, for example, that a vessel containing liquid into which a dead animal has fallen is considered unclean, as is the water. Dealing with liquids and the fear of ritual pollution thus go hand in hand both in the Hebrew Bible, in extra-biblical literature, and in rabbinic texts. ⁵⁶

The belief that food and especially liquids can negatively influence one’s ritual purity can also be observed in the writings found in the Qumran caves. The Community Rule distinguishes between three groups of people (1QS VI,13–23): (a) the ones who are ritually unclean and who are not allowed to share in meals or even provide food to the ritually cleaner people (1QS V,14b–17); (b) the potential initiates, who have the opportunity to move up to the ritually pure group, eventually sharing their solid foods after 1 year and their drink after 2 years (1QS VI,13–23); and (c) the ritually pure group that shares food and drink and that has the right to make decisions about everyone else’s eating and drinking habits as well as about communal meals. The higher the initiate moves in rank, the more food items he is allowed to share with the pure community until, finally, he is also allowed to share in their drink.

In addition, at the time of the rabbis, non-Jews were thought to be “compulsive libationers,” ⁵⁷ while the rabbis saw themselves restrained and performing proper ritual actions:

This is in direct opposition to the Rabbis, seen as exhibiting self-control and offering proper benedictions over wine. However, once again note that the Rabbis—who are terrified of pagans pouring wine that a Jew might drink as a libation to an idolatrous diety—neither prohibit drinking wine nor drinking with non-Jews. ⁵⁸

This fear resulted in strict and all-encompassing rabbinic regulations aimed at monitoring any interaction between Jews and non-Jews in regard to wine production, wine handling, ⁵⁹ and wine consumption.

Did this fear of idolatry, of coming in contact with non-Jewish ritual practices such as libations, also find its literary expression in the lack of wine available in the World to Come as it can be observed in early Jewish extra-biblical texts? If early Jewish authors imagined the World to Come as a ritually clean location, possibly on the mountain of God where the temple stood or could possibly be re-erected, then the fear of ritual pollution must have been an issue. Are these concerns in regard to ritual purity the reason why early Jewish authors avoided references to liquid items on the table of ‘olam ha-ba altogether? Is the dry nature of the ‘olam-ha-ba, and especially the curious lack of wine there, an expression of a world the authors of these texts wished to live in, while transferring their fears of idolatry unto the imagined time of the future?

Conclusion

Both the Hebrew Bible and extra-biblical literature consider food and drink to be gifts from the deity to be enjoyed by human beings, especially when they live according to the divine laws and in moderation. Gluttony and alcohol abuse, the latter of which might lead to sexual and ritual transgressions, however, are frowned upon in these texts.

When it comes to extra-biblical early Jewish texts describing a meal in the World to Come, one notices a curious detail: while the World to Come is portrayed as being one of utter abundance and joy, none of the texts actually describe the righteous as drinking. References to drinking natural water, fruit turned into drink, or any other possibility for the human consumption of liquids, are simply absent from these texts. We have investigated the reasons for this conscious or subconscious omission of a function of the human body that is most common to all human beings.

Assuming that the lack of references to drink and drinking could be an oversight, we have discussed texts that either mentioned rain, water, or (actual or imagined) solid food items that could be turned into liquids or could take on the taste of liquids. While most of these texts dwell on describing the amount of food provided, the wonderful scent of food items or their marvelous appearance, descriptions of actual eating, chewing, or swallowing are rare. Descriptions of actual drinking are missing altogether. The abundance of solid food items and the clear lack of liquids is striking.

Assuming that the ancient authors purposefully avoided references to drink and drinking, one could find several possible reasons for this omission:

• the growing emphasis on moderation in eating and drinking as a means to distinguish oneself from “the other” as witnessed in Daniel, Esther, and Tobit, and further emphasized in even later rabbinic texts;

• the growing emphasis on staying away from alcoholic beverages, since they lead to behavior that is not in line with the deity’s commandments; this is already underlined in the prophetic and wisdom literature and further embellished in rabbinic literature;

• the growing fear of ritual pollution by liquids, examples of which can already be found in the book of Leviticus, as well as throughout the Qumran literature, and also continues into the work of later Jewish authors.

At first glance, it appears odd that the imagined righteous in the imagined and idealized World to Come would be affected by such things. If one lives in the World to Come, could one really get drunk? Could one really eat or drink too much? Could one really pollute oneself, so that one’s ritual purity was in question? Should these negative aspects of human life and commensality not be excluded automatically in an imagined world? It is difficult to imagine that an idealized future world would hold such dangers. But when considering this, one has to remember that any literary reflection about imaginary worlds tells us about the hopes and fears of the authors who imagined this future and their audience to which they responded. The authors chose to eliminate references to drink and drinking, possibly due to the fears and concerns described above.

The early Jewish authors of texts about the feast in the World to Come are utterly unconcerned about the lack of drink and drinking in their descriptions. Underlying their texts is the deep confidence that God will provide in ‘olam ha-ba just as the deity is described as making available plenty of meat from creatures formerly feared, plenty of other nourishment from manna that had disappeared after the days of the wilderness wanderings, and plenty of fruits from the Tree of Life that could no longer be accessed in this world. In the authors’ opinion, there no longer is any need for alcoholic beverages to raise one’s joie de vivre as ‘olam ha-ba is joy itself, nor is there any need for wine used for medicinal purposes as all illnesses and strains of aging have disappeared or are no longer of concern. In light of this confidence, the message the early Jewish authors want to transmit in regard to the circumstances in the World to Come is: No need for drink(s), all is provided.