Flowers of evil: Constructing the wicked in Wisdom of Solomon

Abstract

The distinction between the good and the wicked is common in wisdom literature. Although the distinction can be viewed as ubiquitous, I would like to problematize it by considering the literary device deployed in constructing the archetypes of the good and the wicked. Specifically, I analyze the depiction of the wicked in chapters 1–6 in Wisdom of Solomon and argue that the construction of the wicked in Wisdom is indispensable in understanding how the righteous obtain wisdom through divine protection and acceptance of divine provision. First, I offer a close reading of the text, mainly Chapters 1–6, and parse out the ways of depicting the wicked in Wisdom of Solomon. In particular, I highlight the “collectivity” of the crowd, as opposed to a “single” righteous individual or group. Social theories of the crowd are critical to my formulation of the characteristics of the wicked. Second, I examine the relationship between the wicked and the righteous, and propose the idea of “a mirror effect” in these antithetical depictions. The mirror effect exhibits didactic values, as it instructs one to pursue righteousness and shun from evil. Third, I focus on the interaction between God, the righteous, and the wicked and suggest that divine intervention in helping the righteous stand firm among the wicked manifests both divine justice and divine mercy.

Introduction

“The Devil holds the strings which move us! In repugnant things we discover charms.” ¹ (C’est le Diable qui tient les fils qui nous remuent! Aux objets répugnants nous trouvons des appas.) These lines in Charles Baudelaire’s Au Lecteur, the preface poem to Les Fleurs du Mal, have shocked readers with the triumphant praise of the diabolic agency in human spheres. The framing poem further unsettles readers with vivid depictions of indulgence in evils and vices—“Folly, error, sin, avarice” (La sottise, l’erreur, le péché, la lésine) and the “uglier, more wicked, and more filthy boredom” (II en est un plus laid, plus méchant, plus immonde! . . . C’est l’Ennui!). Enda St. Vincent Millay observes that Baudelaire frequently writes about what is “scandalous, blasphemous, revolting.” ² The shocking experience that readers undergo by reading Baudelaire lies not only in his subject-matter, but also in his masterful literary skill to “conquer ugliness by making beauty of it.” ³

Evil and vice are alluring and enticing—this is not a modern discovery by a French poet. Rather, the statement rings true in any human society. Ancient wisdom literature is infused with depictions of folly and vice and their seductive nature. In resonance with Baudelaire’s lyrical praise of evil, the vivid language deployed to portray the wicked in instructional literature is intriguing. As opposed to human decadence, goodness and wisdom ultimately triumph over evil in wisdom literature. Good and evil, or wisdom and folly occur not in abstract form, but in association with groups of people, namely, the righteous and the wicked, or the wise and the foolish. ⁴

The dichotomy between the good and the wicked is apparent in instructional literature. Wisdom of Solomon (hereafter, Wisdom) participates in this wisdom tradition, especially in chapters 1–6, the so-called Book of Eschatology. Although the distinction can be viewed as ubiquitous, I would like to problematize it by considering the literary device deployed in constructing the archetypes of the good and the wicked. Much ink has been spilled on how to become a wise person in wisdom literature. I would like to invert the focus and attempt to understand the role of the wicked: those who reject and abuse wisdom. Why do the wicked often appear as a crowd? What are the literary effects of these internal dialogues between the wicked? Moreover, if evil and vice are despicable, why is the language used to depict the wicked so florid, and at times rhapsodic, echoing Baudelaire’s literary representation of evil?

In this paper, I argue that the construction of the wicked in Wisdom of Solomon is indispensable in understanding how the righteous obtain wisdom through divine protection and acceptance of divine provision. First, I offer a close reading of the text, mainly chapters 1–6, and parse out the ways of depicting the wicked in Wisdom of Solomon. In particular, I highlight the “collectivity” of the crowd, as opposed to a “single” righteous individual or group. Social theories of the crowd are critical to my formulation of the characteristics of the wicked. Second, I examine the relationship between the wicked and the righteous, and propose the idea of “a mirror effect” in these antithetical depictions. The mirror effect exhibits didactic values, as it instructs one to pursue righteousness and shun from evil. Third, I focus on the interaction between God, the righteous, and the wicked and suggest that divine intervention in helping the righteous stand firm among the wicked manifests both divine justice and divine mercy.

Constructing the wicked

In Wisdom, the righteous and the wicked appear not in abstract forms; rather, the designation of groups of people is closely tied to human behaviors and the different results that these behaviors yield. The association of ethical conduct with people’s characters is rooted in the wisdom tradition of the Hebrew Bible. When it comes to instructions of proper moral conduct in the Hebrew Bible, rarely can one read a list of vices and virtues, leaving no words of explanation. ⁵ Instead, ethical behaviors and their corresponding outcomes become embodied in different people groups. For example, Psalm 15 demonstrates the concretization of moral characters. Instead of asking the question of “What are righteousness and wisdom?,” Psalm 15 poses the rhetorical questions “Who are the wise and righteous ones? What are some of their characteristics?”

יהוה מי יגור באהלך מי ישכן בהר קדשך‎

O Lord, who shall sojourn in your tent?

Who shall dwell in your holy mountain? (Ps 15:1)

In response to the question, we observe a detailed depiction of an ideal God-honoring person—someone who does righteous acts and speaks the truth, no slander, does no evil to his neighbor, and is willing to accept instruction and discipline, sits apart from the wicked, and receives no bribes (Ps 15:2–5). Many of the expected traits of an ethical person in Psalm 15 find echoes throughout Proverbs as well. These traits orient to everyday life and show how one navigates in society and lives a life of wisdom.

Besides the identification of the wise and righteous people, the juxtaposition of the outcomes of the righteous and the wicked is prevalent in Wisdom, which is a common feature in didactic poetry. Psalm 1 is a paradigmatic example in this regard. Psalm 1 summarizes and contrasts the two ways of life, namely, the ways of the righteous and the wicked, and their subsequent results:

והיה כעץ שתול על פלגי מים‎

אשר פריו יתן בעתו ועלהו לא יבול‎

וכל אשר יעשה יצליח‎

לא כן הרשעים‎

כי אם כמץ אשר תדפנו רוח‎

.על כן לא יקמו רשעים במשפט וחטאים בעדת צדיקים‎

He is like a tree

planted by streams of water

that yields its fruit in its season,

and its leaf does not wither.

In all that he does, he prospers.

The wicked are not so,

But are like chaff that the wind drives away.

Therefore the wicked will not stand in the judgment,

nor sinners in the congregation of the righteous. (Ps 1:4–5)

Such is the case in Proverbs as well. Most of the Proverbs are crafted in an antithetical fashion. “A wise son” versus “a foolish son,” or “righteous” versus “wicked,” or “the rich” and “the poor”—these opposites reveal what counts as wisdom and righteousness and the lack thereof.

By pointing out these broad literary features of depicting the righteous and the wicked in wisdom literature, namely, the concrete descriptions of the two groups of people and the different results that human behaviors yield, I want to further examine how these literary features generate and shape the depiction of the wicked as a crowd and the change of voices in speeches of the wicked.

In the following, I will engage with the two speeches of the wicked in the Book of Eschatology (chapters 2 and 5) in particular. Chapter 2 comprises the irrational thought and conversation between the wicked. On the contrary, chapter 5 describes the repentance of the wicked after they witness the divine protection of the righteous. These two chapters have many correspondences as to vocabularies and motifs. The latter chapter addresses most of the same topics in the former chapter and attempts to make a correction.

To start my analysis, I think an outline can be conducive to teasing out the flow of thought in the text:

1:16 The collective ungodly men (ἀσεβεῖς)—third person plural “they”

2:1–11 The collective ungodly men, indulgence—first person plural “we”

2:12–20 The righteous individual (δίκαιος)—third person singular “he”

2:21–24 The collective ungodly men—third person plural “they”

3:1–8 The collective righteous people—third person plural “they”

3:10–19 The collective ungodly men and their punishment—third person plural “they”

4:1–6 Transition: a general statement, a continuation of the punishment of the wicked

4:10–16 The righteous individual and divine protection—third person singular “he”

4:17–20 The collective ungodly men—third person plural “they”

5:1 The righteous individual “he”

5:2–14 The collective ungodly men, repentance—first person plural “we”

5:15–16 The collective righteous people—third person plural “they”

As the italics suggest, the collectivity of the wicked is a significant feature in the depiction. The ungodly men dwell together and they plot against the righteous individual. Why do the wicked occur as a crowd? What is the literary effect of the crowd?

When it comes to the topic of the crowd, an excursus into social science can be conducive to understanding the depictions of the crowd in Wisdom. ⁶ To tackle the issue of the crowd, scholars propose ideas from multiple dimensions, such as sociology, psychology, criminology, and politics, just to name a few. The crowd constitutes the society and vice versa. As part of the social structure, the crowd sometimes gathers and departs in either a purposeful or purposeless fashion. Individuals merge into the crowd. Crowds are effervescent, unstable, and volatile—these descriptions capture the tumultuous nature of crowds, especially in times of crisis. Three major sociological theories on crowd behavior can be relevant to our understanding of the collective wicked in Wisdom.

First, Gustave Le Bon, a nineteenth-century social psychologist, proposed the contagion theory. Contagion theory emphasizes a “hypnotic order” that eliminates the will of the individual. ⁷ The individual becomes unaware of his or her responsibility, but follows the crowd without raising any questions. The hypnosis is related to a lack of individual reason, as the voice of the crowd distorts the individual mind. Wisdom finds echoes of this contagious effect. The preface to the speech of the wicked indicates that the conversation lacks reason: “For they said within themselves, not reasoning straightly (λογισάμενοι οὐκ ὀρθῶς)”(Wis 2:1). The following exhortations of self-indulgence, in a nearly rhapsodic fashion, resonate with the carpe diem passages in Qoheleth (2:24). Wine and perfumes, spring flowers, rosebuds, and tokens of mirth—the unsound mind chases after these transient things (Wis 2:7–9). ⁸ Qoheleth’s insouciance to the oppression of the poor and the violation of justice (Eccl 5:8) turns into active advice of committing injustice against the marginalized in Wisdom (2:10). The lack of resistance within the group suggests the disappearance of rational minds. Furthermore, the unsound reasoning of the wicked is reflected in their disinterest in the knowledge of God. The wicked failed to understand the mysteries of God nor pursued holiness (Wis 2:23). Ignorance of the divine is considered foolish, a theme which is also attested in the Psalter (Pss 14, 53). The punishment of the wicked is portrayed as a result of their ungodly reasoning (Wis 3:10).

The second characteristic of the crowd is articulated in convergence theory. Opposed to the mindless gathering, convergence theory shows that like-minded people convene together to come up with something purposeful. A common plan or aim ties people together. As the proverb goes, birds of a feather flock together. In Wisdom, the plot against the righteous man and defiance of righteousness and holiness allow the wicked to be bound with one another. The inner dialogue among the wicked forms an intriguing contrast to the righteous individual. The collective noise seems to inundate the voice of the righteous individual. In the literary tradition of the Hebrew Bible, one rarely hears dialogues among the righteous. In tumultuous times, the righteous (or those who consider themselves righteous) lament over their suffering and bring their requests before the Lord (Pss 13, 44, 137). Compared to the wicked, the righteous individual lacks internal thought and remains reticent. Instead, the righteous cling to God and put their trust in the Lord. Furthermore, the wicked tend to single out and scoff at the righteous (Wis 2:12). The incompatibility between evil and righteousness goes in tandem with the persecution of the righteous (Wis 2:19–20). Punishment and final judgment of the wicked will be a divine response to the persecution of His child (Wis 2:13).

Emergent norm theory captures the third feature of crowd behavior. According to Ralph Turner, “Emergent norm theory (ENT) posits that nontraditional, collective behavior emerges from the crucible of a normative crisis.” ⁹ New norms are set up by members of the crowd. Interactions among the members generate new expectations and then lead to changes in norms. Rather than setting up an order, the new norms of the wicked intend to stir up more chaos and turmoil. The wicked in Wisdom claim to set up their own rules, as they exhort each other: “Let our strength be a law of righteousness; for that which is weak is proven useless. (Ἔστω δὲ ἡμῶν ἡ ἰσχὺς νόμος τῆς δικαιοσύνης, τὸ γὰρ ἀσθενὲς ἄχρηστον ἐλέγχεται)” (Wis 2:11). The statement aligns with Callicles’s concept of law and nature in Gorgias. ¹⁰ Callicles believes that “the weak and the many” institute the laws to protect their share in society (Gorgias 483b4). But nature “reveals that it is a just thing for the better man and the more capable man to have a greater share than the worse man and the less capable man” (Gorgias 485d). In the Republic, Thrasymachus also argues that strength is justice (Republic II 338c). Since association plays a huge role in establishing new rules, with whom an individual associates leads to different final results. For the ungodly men, “by their hands and their words summon death, deeming him a friend they pined away. They made a covenant with him (συνθήκην ἔθεντο πρὸς αὐτὸν), because they are worthy to belong with him” (Wis 1:16). The language of “making a covenant with death” alludes to Isa 28:15. ¹¹

Another literary feature of chapters 1–6 in Wisdom is its constant shift between voices. As the outline shows, the first mention of the wicked and their lawless deeds is in the form of a collective pronoun “they” (1:16). To further expand what these lawless deeds and thoughts entail, the text switches to the voice of “we” (2:1ff). Between the two speeches of the wicked, we also observe the shifts to third-person pronouns. In his analysis of voices and perspectives in Qoheleth, Christianson argues that first-person speech emphasizes experience, while general statements in the third-person focus on advice. ¹² Seeing the framework of Wisdom as a series of instructions to the “rulers of the earth” (οἱ κρίνοντες τὴν γῆν), it is reasonable for the readers to consider the text as a piece of instructional literature. Nevertheless, Christianson’s proposal can be helpful, for visual perceptions can serve as medium through which people can gain knowledge of things. One can gain a sense of what wickedness entails by being exposed to the depictions of the experience of the wicked. This notion leads us to consider the value of depicting the wicked in literature that aims to promote virtue and goodness.

The mirror effect

Take brass as a mirror, one may trim your appeal. Take history as a mirror, one may know the rise and fall. Take people as a mirror, one may understand the gain and loss. (Attributed to Emperor Li Shimin, “Biography of Weizhen,” in History of the Tang Dynasty)—By Li Shimin, from “Biograhy of Weizhen,” in History of the Tang Dynasty

The mirror has long been used as a literary metaphor across the world. ¹³ From sight, mind, understanding to human relationships, the mirror seems to present itself as a “powerful regulative idea” for “arrays of conceptual models.” ¹⁴ The image of a mirror also occurs frequently in the language of philosophy. For example, Richard Rorty makes connections between the mirror and theory of truth: “The picture which holds traditional philosophy captive is that of the mind as a great mirror, containing various representations—some accurate, some no—and capable of being studied by pure, non-empirical methods.” ¹⁵

Rorty’s association of mirror and truth finds its echo in Wisdom. In Wis 7:26, Sophia is depicted as “a reflection of everlasting light, an unspotted mirror of the working of God (ἔσοπτρον ἀκηλίδωτον τῆς τοῦ Θεοῦ ἐνεργείας), and an image of his goodness.” Philo also employs the image of mirror to highlight divine power: “For in a certain sense the wisdom of the world was a mirror of the powers of God, in accordance with which it became perfect and this universe is governed and managed.” ¹⁶ Both quotes demonstrate the reflection of divine power through wisdom and cosmic order.

Optical behavior is tied to the mirror metaphor. Sight is an important theme in Wisdom, as many interactions between the wicked and the righteous take place in the sight of both parties. By bridging the theme of sight and the mirror metaphor, I aim to argue that the antithetical depictions between the wicked and the righteous exhibit a mirror effect.

Mirror effect pertains to a set of relationships between oneself and others. “The eyes are figured as mirrors of the heart in several problems, the face the mirror of interiority, and . . . habit as the mirror of mind.” ¹⁷ Through the mirror, one can examine one’s own motives and those of others. Mirrors propel us to look into them and thus “institute a self-relation.” ¹⁸ When we walk in the streets, we tend to look at ourselves in the display windows. One cares for one’s self-image and presentation before others, which may prompt this inclination to check whether one is all put together. In public, when one sees oneself in the mirror, one is also seen by others. ¹⁹ Although others’ perspectives may differ from one’s own thought, through the gaze at the mirror, one’s self-evaluation and observation participate in the perspectives of many other viewers. ²⁰ In this regard, each person can be a mirror of himself of herself. To see and to be seen—this constant movement between the active and the passive, the subject and the object, signifies a mirror effect. The mirror metaphor suggests a complex human relationship between oneself, the other, and the world. The social dimension arising from the mirror metaphor applies to our understanding of the belated repentance of the wicked in chapter 5. The mirror effect weaves the major themes of sight, testing, and life and death in Wisdom.

To apply the mirror effect to the depictions of the wicked in Wisdom, sight plays an important role in moral reasoning: the wicked see the righteous and simultaneously are seen by the righteous. The image of the righteous in the eyes of the wicked generates sorrowful thoughts and propels them to repent, though belatedly. When the wicked singled out the righteous individual, they claimed that “He is grievous to us even to look at (Βαρύς ἐστιν ἡμῖν καὶ βλεπόμενος), because his life is unlike other men’s and his paths are strange” (2:15). This collective seeing brings some unease among the wicked. The uniqueness of the righteous arises from a comparison with others and the rest of the world. The mirror effect is active here, as the reflected image of the righteous can be concerning to the wicked. Although the wicked recognized that the righteous was distinct, they continued to test him and wait to see whether the righteous one could endure their torture. “Let’s see (Ἴδωμεν) if his words are true. Let’s test (πειράσωμεν) what will happen at the end of his life” (2:17). The wicked desired to see (εἶδον) the gruesome death of the righteous (2:20). However, “their wickedness blinded them (ἀπετύφλωσε γὰρ αὐτοὺς)” (2:21). The blindness of the foolish makes them falsely believe that the righteous are dead (3:2). “In the sight of human beings, the righteous were punished” (ἐν ὄψει ανθρώπων ἐὰν κολασθῶσιν) (3:4). Nevertheless, the righteous lay their hope of immorality in God (3:4). James Reese also points out that “seeing” serves as a significant theological theme in the book. Reese interprets true seeing does not “come from the power of bodily eyes, but requires a divine revelation or intervention, or at least good will on man’s part to view the nature of things correctly.” ²¹

By sight, the wicked witnessed the experience of the righteous in torment. Testing constitutes their main experience. As the wicked set apart the righteous individual, they say, “Let’s test (δοκιμάσωμεν) him with insult and torture, that we may find out how gentle he is” (2:19). Not only the wicked test the righteous, but God also tests them to refine their characters. “Having borne a little chastening, they will receive great good; because God tested them (ὅτι ὁ Θεὸς ἐπείρασεν αὐτοὺς), and found them worthy of himself” (3:5). The following lines further demonstrate the long-enduring character of the righteous. Because of that, they are able to rule the nations (3:8). “God tested (ἐδοκίμασεν) the righteous like gold in the furnace (Ὡς χρυσὸν ἐν χωνευτηρίῳ), and he accepted them as a whole burnt offering” (3:7). Divine testing and its association with gold or silver in the furnace are common in biblical literature. In Ps 66:10, we read, “For you, O God, have tested us; you have tried us as silver is tried.” Another occurrence is Zec 13:9 (LXX):

And I will put this third into the fire, and refine them as one refines silver, and test them as gold is tested (καὶ δοκιμῶ αὐτοὺς, ὡς δοκιμάζεται τὸ χρυσίον). They will call upon my name, and I will answer them. I will say, “They are my people”; and they will say, “The Lord is my God.”

Testing from the wicked and the divine yields different results. The wicked “test” the righteous to see “what will happen at the end of his life (πειράσωμεν τὰ ἐν ἐκβάσει αὐτοῦ)” (2:17). They tested the righteous “with insult and torture (Ὕβρει καὶ βασάνῳ)” (2:19). However, the “shameful death” that the wicked impose on the righteous comes upon themselves instead. “Death entered into the world by the envy of the evil, and those who belong to him experience (πειράζουσιν) it” (2:24). Here may be a wordplay of πειράζω. The wicked attempt to test the righteous to death. But they experienced the result of their malicious testing, namely, death. By using the same word with its different meanings, the author seems to suggest an irony. If one does not have righteousness or wisdom, one needs to experience the results of one’s own mindless deeds. On the contrary, divine testing aims to foster virtues out of the righteous and to mark them with the divine light. “In the time of their visitation, they will shine (ἀναλάμψουσιν). They will run back and forth like sparks (σπινθῆρες) among the stubble” (3:7). The righteous are able to exhibit the shining light, for they make themselves rooted in God and knowledge of Him. As for the wicked, their reason and their existence are merely by chance, and a “spark kindled by the beating of our hearts (σπινθὴρ ἐν κινήσει καρδίας ἡμῶν)” (2:2). Same vocabularies, but different outcomes for the wicked and the righteous reflect the mirror effect. The wicked see the fruit of their lawless deeds by reflecting upon their experience in contrast to that of the righteous.

As we have already observed, the explicit references to sight and testing also relate to the recurrent theme of life and death in the book (Wis 1:12–13, 2:24, 3:2, 5:15). For the wicked, the condemnation of death and false impression of death of the righteous turn out to be wrong. Instead, the righteous enjoy immortality, while the wicked perish. The perspective on retribution after death suggests some apocalyptic influence (chapter 5). John Collins identifies the judgment scene in chapter 5 “as couched in the apocalyptic idiom.” ²² Specifically, Collins points out that the rhetorical questions “How was he counted among sons of God? How is his portion among the holy ones?” (5:5) find resonances in 1 En. 104:2–6, in which one finds blessings over the righteous that “[they] will have great joy as the angels in heaven . . . for [they] will be companions to the host of heaven.” ²³

In the judgment scene where the wicked realize their unsound reasoning, they make a speech of repentance. The speech in vv 4–13 corresponds to the former speech (2:1–20). The wicked mourn their evil behaviors. Their repentance generates a new understanding of existence: “So we also, as soon as we were born, ceased to be (οὕτως καὶ ἡμεῖς γεννηθέντες ἐξελίπομεν); and we had no sign of virtue to show, but we were utterly consumed in our wickedness” (5:13). The juxtaposition between the beginning and end of life flashes back to the former speech where the wicked posit a nonchalant attitude to the order of the world. “Because we were born by mere chance, and hereafter we will be as though we had never been (καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο ἐσόμεθα ὡς οὐχ ὑπάρξαντες)” (2:2). In the former speech of the wicked, they praised vanity, for their transient existence propels them to seize the day. In the speech of repentance, however, the wicked attribute their transient existence to their moral inadequacy. The mirror effect enacts their change of heart and challenges their former way of life.

The righteous among sinners

As we have observed, the wicked appear in a crowd and they test the righteous. In the final judgment, the wicked come to realize their blindness to justice. Although divine retribution in the eschaton shows God’s justice, it does not eliminate the persecution of the righteous in the present. In this life, the wicked still prevail. What can the righteous gain in their endurance of the wicked? How should the righteous live among sinners? The answers to these questions in Wisdom are closely connected to divine intervention and protection, as well as people’s faithful relationship with God.

“No one is an island, entire of itself.” ²⁴ Each individual is a part of society. To explain the relationship between an individual and her broader society, Von Rad states that

the behavior of an individual was connected much more intensively, much more organically, with the variations in his environment, of a concept of reality which was able to understand the effect of the environment on man as a challenge, but also a response to his behavior and which, in a word, realized that from this direction something extremely important was continually happening to man, good and evil, which addressed him and which never entirely withdrew from comprehension. ²⁵

There are two takeaways from Von Rad’s point. First, the environment has an impact on individual social behavior. Similarly, each individual’s behavior cannot be internal, but “always something public.” ²⁶ Moral decisions and evaluations take place in communities: “it was a social phenomenon.” ²⁷ In this context, wisdom is considered social virtue. The wicked denounce social norms and boast to establish their own law (2:11). The wicked demonstrate social vices, such as adultery, lust for power, and unbridled passion. For the righteous and wise, they need to learn to keep themselves away from the vicious people and “abstain from the ways [of wicked] as from uncleanness (καὶ ἀπέχεται τῶν ὁδῶν ἡμῶν ὡς ἀπὸ ἀκαθαρσιῶν)” (2:16). In this regard, to be righteous and wise requires discernment from the agent who makes moral decisions. She needs to decide with whom she would like to associate. ²⁸ Regarding social associations, Aleida Assmann makes a clear point on the antithetical nature of instructions:

The composition of a proverb is usually two-fold, combining a positive and negative half, a recommendation and a warning, a virtue and a vice. These texts neatly sketch the world in black and white, in good and bad. They reduce the complexity of the world to a series of palpable “dos” and “don’ts.” In fact, virtue is nothing else than the shunning of vice, and vice versa. In order to be wise, it is often enough to avoid what is harmful. ²⁹

The quote is complementary to the second takeaway of Von Rad’s point. In society, good and bad always exist side by side. One needs to learn to discern good from evil and to navigate a life full of options. In this light, the futility and foolishness of the wicked become alerting signs. Depictions of the wicked serve as anti-examples for the righteous. The experience and the outcomes of the wicked enable individuals who desire righteousness to discern between virtues and vices. Barclay comments on Wisdom’s depiction of the righteous and the wicked:

The outcome of life, then, is not the product of chance (2:2) or ultimately unfair: in accordance with what is morally, socially, or rationally fitting, the ungodly will meet their end in death (1:16) and the godly will with God (3:5). ³⁰

To live wisely, the righteous need to distance themselves from the wicked and persist in doing justice.

In addition to a voluntary association with or disassociation from the righteous, divine protection and intervention maintain a constant highlight in Wisdom. “Being found well-pleasing to God, someone was loved. While living among sinners he was transported (καὶ ζῶν μεταξὺ ἁμαρτωλῶν μετετέθη)” (4:10). This transmigration of the righteous soul continues the thought of the premature death of a righteous person in the preceding verses (4:7–8). Although a life of longevity is desirable in any social context (Deut 30:19), reality may present itself differently. The empirical reality and covenantal promises seem to be at odds in some instances as well. A barren woman receives blessings from the Lord (3:13). In a similar paradoxical vein, a eunuch will be rewarded for his faithfulness (3:14). Also, the righteous will die early (4:7). The premature departure of a righteous person can find parallels with the figure of Enoch. “An early death is not only preferable to a long life of wickedness; it is inherently advantageous, as it lessens the danger of corruption.” ³¹ Either in death or life, “the souls of the righteous are in the hands of God (Δίκαιων δὲ ψυχαὶ ἐν χειρὶ Θεοῦ)” (3:1). Divine grace and love persist for those who love Him and trust in Him.

In light of the imbalance between the empirical reality and the divine intention, Wisdom appeals to the eschaton and hopes for a restoration of order. The eschatological vision explains the way and time when injustice and death will find its due while justice and order will be put forth. ³² In the judgment scene, the Lord will fight for the righteous. The imagery of a divine warrior (5:15–23) is an appropriation of Isaiah 59. The motif also occurs in Ephesians 6. There are many similarities between Isaiah 59 and Wisdom 5. Both texts show that the righteous are vulnerable as they were under attack by the impious ones. In other words, the righteous are the “innocent victims.” ³³ However, with the theophany of the divine warrior, the righteous are vindicated by the Lord. Furthermore, “the righteous will live forever and their reward is the Lord, and the care for them with the Most High. Δίκαιοι (δὲ εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα ζῶσι, καὶ ἐν Κυρίῳ ὁ μισθὸς αὐτῶν, καὶ ἡ φροντὶς αὐτῶν παρὰ ὑψίστῳ)” (5:15). In this regard, we see “an eschatological representation of the drama that turns the empirical inside-out and thereby turns the theological right-side-up.” ³⁴

Conclusion

In Wisdom, the sage dedicates considerable space to talking about the wicked, namely, those who reject wisdom. The discourse on the wicked takes up nearly half of the book. ³⁵ As we scrutinize the literary depictions of the wicked, borrowing insights into moral behaviors from social theories, we notice the rhetorical and instructional values in portraying the wicked. The experience of the wicked and the corresponding outcomes of their behavior serve as alerting signs for those who desire and pursue wisdom and righteousness. By observing the losses of the wicked, one learns to shun injustice. Through the reflection in the mirror, one learns deliberation in making moral decisions. All in all, the mundane human twists and turns are in the eyes of the Lord. To learn to associate oneself with the divine and to befriend Him, as opposed to death and evil, is the core of wisdom.