The counseling needs of the learning disabled adolescent and adult can be determined in large part through an examination of their developmental needs and difficulties. Their low self-esteem, external locus of control, and experience of learned helplessness are best explainable by Kohut's formulation of the self: As a result of both their deficits and lack of supportive selfobject experiences, there can be significant damage to self-structure and development in the learning disabled. To develop greater social awareness and competence, more positive self-esteem and a more cohesive sense of self, various client-centered, dynamic, and cognitive/behavioral counseling approaches are suggested. These counseling approaches, for both individuals and groups, are targeted to meet the present psychosocial needs of the learning disabled adolescent and adult. Individual case vignettes are offered to explain both the rationale and strategies of these varied interventions.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AlleyG., & DeshlerD. (1979). Teaching the learning disabled adolescent: Strategies and methods.Denver: Love.
2.
AlleyJ.R.DeshlerD.D.ClarkF.L.SchumakerJ.B.& WarnerM.M. (1983). Learning disabilities in adolescent and adult populations: Research Implication (Part II), Focus on Exceptional Children,15 (1), 1 14.
3.
AmerikanerM.J., & OmizoM.M. (1984). Family interaction and learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 540–543.
BanduraA. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
6.
BarbaroF. (1982). The learning disabled student: Some considerations in setting objectives. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 599–603.
7.
BeebeF., & LachmannF. (1988). Mother-infant mutual influence and precursors of psychic structure. In GoldbergA. (Ed.): Frontiers in self psychology: Progress in self psychology, Vol. 3 (pp. 3–25). New York: Guilford Press.
8.
BilkenD., & ZollersN. (1986). The focus of advocacy in the LD field. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 579–586.
9.
BlalockJ. (1981). Persistent problems and concerns of young adults with learning disabilities. In CruickshankW. M. and SilverA. (Eds.), Bridges to tomorrow: The best of ACLD, Vol. 2 (pp. 3556). Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
10.
BruckM., and HebertM. (1982). Correlates of learning disabled students' peer-interaction patterns. Learning Disability Quarterly, 5, 353, 362.
11.
BrunerJ.S. (1973). Beyond the information given: Studios in the psychology of knowing.New York: Norton.
12.
BryanT.H. (1986). Self-concept and attributions of the learning disabled. Learning Disabilities Focus,1 (2), 82–89.
13.
BryanT.H., & PearlR. (1979). Self-concepts and locus of control of learning disabled children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 8, 223–226.
14.
CaninoF.J. (1981). Learned-helplessness theory: Implications for research in learning disabilities. The Journal of Special Education,15 (4), 471–484.
CoreyG. (1981). Theory and practice of group counseling.Monterey: Brooks/Cole.
17.
CruickshankW.M.MorseW.C., & JohnsJ.S. (1980). Learning disabilities: The struggle from adolescence toward adulthood.Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
18.
DicksteinE.B., & WarrenD.R. (1980). Role-taking deficits in learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 33–37.
ElsonM. (ed.), 1987. The Kohut seminars on self psychology and psychotherapy with adolescents and young adults.New York: W. W. Norton.
21.
EriksonE.H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis.New York: Norton.
22.
FafardM., & HaubrickP.A. (1981). Vocational and social adjustment of learning disabled young adults: a follow-up study. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 122–130.
23.
FieldT., & SostekA. (1983). Infants born at risk. Grune & Stratton: New York.
24.
FinchamF., & BarlingJ. (1978). Locus of control and generosity in learning disabled, normal achieving, and gifted children. Child Development, 49, 293–302.
25.
FreudS. (1957). Some character-types met within psychoanalytic work. In J. Strachey (Ed. and Trans.), The standard edition of The complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp. 311SIS). London: Hogarth Press, (original work published 1916)
GordonS. (1984). Psychological problems of adolescents with MBD. In KronickD. (Ed.), Learning disabilities: Its implications to a responsible society.Chicago: Academic Therapy.
28.
GordonT. (1972). A description of the group centered leader. In DiedrichR.C.& DyeA.H. (Eds.), Group procedures: Purposes, processes, and outcomes.
29.
GreshamF.M., & ElliotS.N. (1989). Social skills deficits as a primary learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities,22 (2), 120–124.
30.
GroteluschenA.K.BorokowskiJ.G., & HaleC. (1990). Interdependency of executive and attributional processes. In ScruggsI.E.& YoungB. (Eds.), Intervention research in learning disabilities, (pp. 88–101). New York: Springer-Verlag.
31.
HansenJ.C.StevieR.R.,& WarnerR.W.Jr. (1986). Counseling: Theory and process (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
32.
HechtmanL.WeissG., & PearlmanT. (1980). Hyperactives as young adults: Self-esteem and social skills. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 25, 478–482.
33.
HoffmanF.J.SheldonK.L.MinskoffE.H.SauterS.W.SteidleE.F.BakerD.P.BaileyM.B., & EcholsL.D. (1987). Needs of learning disabled adults. Journal of learning disabled adults. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 43–52.
KahnE. (1985). Heinz Kohut and Carl Rogers: A Timely Comparison. American Psychologist,40 (8), 893–904.
36.
KendonA. (1981). Nonverbal communication, interaction, and gesture.New York: Mouton Publishers.
37.
KohutH. (1971). The analysis of the self; a systematic approach to the psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic personality disorders.New York: International Universities Press.
38.
KohutH. (1977). The restoration of the self.New York: International Universities Press.
39.
KohutH. (1984). How does analysis cure? University of Chicago Press: Chicago.
40.
KronickD. (1978). An examination of psychological aspects of learning disabled adolescents. Learning Disability Quarterly, (1), 86–93.
41.
KronickD. (1981). Social development of LD persons.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
42.
LawrenceE., & WinschelJ. (1975). Locus of control: Implications for special education. Exceptional Children, 41, 483 490.
LewisM., & RosenblumL.A. (1974). The effect of the infant on its caregiver.New York: John Wiley & Sons.
47.
LewisS., & Lawrence-PattersonE. (1989). Locus of control of children with learning disabilities and perceived locus of control by significant others. Journal of Learning Disability,22 (4), 255257.
48.
LichtenbergJ. (1983). Psychoanalysis and infant research.HilledaleN.J.: Analytic Press.
PollowayE.A.SmithD.J.PattonJ.R. (1988). Learning disabilities: an adult development perspective. Learning Disability Quarterly, 11, 265–271.
52.
PrechtlH.F.R. (1963). The mother-child interaction in babies with minimal brain damage. In B.M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior.Vol. II, pp. 53–59. London: Methuen.
53.
PrescottM.R., & HulnickH.R. (1979). Counseling parents of handicapped children: An empathic approach. Personnel and Guidance Journal,58 (4), 263–266. '
RogersM., & SaklofskeD.H. (1985). Self-concepts, locus of control, and performance. Expectations of learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities,18 (5), 273–278.
56.
RosenthalI. (1981). Final Report: Learning Opportunities Center for Special Needs Community College Students, (Bureau of Education for the Handicapped, Grant G007804754). New York: Kingsbor- ough Community College.
57.
RosenthalI. (1985). A career development program for learning disabled college students. Journal of Counseling and Development, 63, 308–310.
58.
RosenthalI. (1986). College for the learning disabled: Myths and realities. Churchill Forum,8 (2), 1 4, 7.
59.
RosenthalI. (1989). Model transition programs for learning disabled high school and college students. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 33 (1), 54–66.
60.
RosenbergB., & GaierE. (1977). The self-concept of the adolescent with learning disabilities. Adolescence, 12, 490–497.
61.
SeligmanM. (1983). Sources of psychological disturbance among siblings of handicapped children. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 61, 529–531.
ShaneE., & ShaneM. (1989). Child analysis and adult analysis. In GoldbergA. (ed.) Dimensions of self experience: Progress in self psychology, Vol. 5 (pp. 59–74). Hillsdale, N.J.: Analytic Press.
64.
SiegelE. (1974). The exceptional child grows up.New York: E.P. Dutton.
65.
SmithC.R. (1983). Learning disabilities: the interaction of learning, task and setting.Boston: Little, Brown.
66.
SmithJ.R. (1988). Social and vocational problems of adults with learning disabilities: a review of the literature. Learning Disabilities Focus, 4 (1), 46–58.
67.
SnyderL. (1982). Locus of control in learning disabled and nondisabled students. Phi Delta Kappau, 64, 140–141.
68.
SternD.W. (1977). The first relationship: Infant and mother. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
69.
SternD.W. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant.New York: Basic Books.
70.
SullivanH.S. (1968). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. Paperback reprint: New York: Norton.
71.
ThomasA. (1979). Learned helplessness and expectancy factors. Review of Educational Research, 49, 208–211.
UlmanR.B., & PaulH. (1989). A self psychological theory and approach to treating substance abuse disorders: The “intersubjec- tive absorption” hypothesis. In GoldbergA. (Ed.) Dimensions of Self-Experience: Progress in Self Psychology, Vol. 5 (pp. 121–141). Hillsdale, N.J.: Analytic Press.
74.
VogelS.A. (1982). On developing LD college programs. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 518–528.
75.
VogelS.A. (1985). Learning disabled college students: Identification, assessment, and outcomes. In DuaneD.& LeongC.K. (Eds.), Understanding Learning Disabilities: International and Multidisciplinary Views.New York: Plenum Press.
76.
VogelS.A. (1987). Issues and concerns in LD college programming. In D. Johnson & J. Blalock (Eds.), Young Adults with Learning Disabilities: Clinical Studies.Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton.
77.
WeissG., & HechtmanL.T. (1986). Hyperactive Children Grown Up.New York: Guilford.
78.
WhiteW.DeshlerD.SchumakerJ.WarnerM.AlleyG.ClarkF. (1983). The effects of learning disabilities on post school adjustment. Journal of Rehabilitation, 49, 46–50.
79.
WhiteW.J., & WhimmerD.B. (1982). The cognitively impaired. In HarringtonT.F. (Ed.), Handbook of career planning for special needs students. Rockville: Aspen Systems Corporation.
80.
WilcheskyM., & ReynoldsT. (1986). The socially deficient LD child in context: A systems approach to assessment and treatment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 411–415.
81.
WolfE.S. (1988). Treating the self.New York: Guilford.
