In the past few years, researchers have highlighted the Importance of cognitive and metacognitive training for increasing learning effectiveness. A number of educators have begun to incorporate research into practice to develop specific learning strategies to teach learning disabled (LD) adolescents. Some of the more notable learning strategies are a part of the Strategies Intervention Model (SIM). While much has been written about SIM and the general characteristics of learning-strategy instruction, the specific characteristics of the learning strategies have received little attention, resulting in unspecified guidelines upon which to evaluate new strategies. The purpose of this article is to assist teachers in the evaluation of specific learning strategies. The manner in which learning strategies are designed to address the cognitive deficits of LD students and the manner in which they are presented and taught to students are reviewed. Specific learning styles are used to illustrate critical features.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AdamsA.ArcherA.EllisE.S., & MooreheadM.K. (in press). Effective instruction of mildly handicapped children in secondary schools.Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
2.
AndersonT.H., & ArmbrusterB.B. (1980). Studying. In PearsonP.D. (Ed.), Handbook on research in reading.New York: Longman.
3.
ArmbrusterB.B.EcholsC.H., & BrownA.L. (1984). The role of metacognition in reading to learn: A developmental perspective. Volta Review,84 (5), 45–56.
4.
AtkinsonR.C., & RaughM.R. (1975). An application of the mnemonic keyword method to the acquisition of a Russian vocabulary. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104, 126–233.
5.
BarryM. (1986, December). An exploratory study of how college level students construct schemata from pictures. Paper presented at American Reading Forum, Longboat, FL.
6.
BorkowskiJ.G., & CavanaughJ.C. (1979). Maintenance and generalization of skills and strategies by the retarded. In EllisN.R. (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency: Psychological theory and research.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
7.
BorkowskiJ.G.PeckV.A.ReidM.K., & KurtzB.E. (1983). Impulsivity and strategy transfer: Metamemory as mediator. Child Development, 54, 459–473.
8.
ClarkF.L.WarnerM.M.AlleyG.R.DeshlerD.D.SchumakerJ.B.VetterA.F., & NolanS.M. (1981). Visual imagery and self-questioning: Strategies to improve comprehension of written material (Research report #51). Lawrence: University of Kansas Institute for Research in Learning Disabilities.
9.
DeshlerD.D.AlleyG.R.WarnerM.M.& SchumakerJ.B. (1981). Instructional practices for promoting skill acquisition and generalization in severely learning disabled adolescents. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 4, 415–421.
10.
DeshlerD.D.SchumakerJ.B.DentonP., & AlleyG.R. (1982). A listening and notetaking strategy for LD adolescents (Research report #68). Lawrence: University of Kansas Institute for Research in Learning Disabilities.
11.
DeshlerD.D.SchumakerJ.B., & LenzB.K. (1984). Academic and cognitive interventions for LD adolescents: Part I. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 108–117.
12.
DeshlerD.D.SchumakerJ.B.LenzB.K., & EllisE.S. (1984). Academic and cognitive interventions for LD adolescents: Part II. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 170–187.
13.
DeshlerD.D.WarnerM.M.SchumakerJ.B., & AlleyG.R. (1983). Learning strategies intervention model: Key components and current status. In McKinneyJ.D. & L. Feagans (Eds.), Current topics in learning disabilities (Vol. 1). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.
14.
DinkmeyerD., & McKayG.D. (1976). Systematic training for effective parenting.Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
15.
DouglasL.C. (1981). Metamemory in learning disabled children: A clue to memory deficiencies. Paper presented to the Society for Research on Child Development, Boston.
16.
EllisE.S. (1985a). The effects of teaching learning disabled adolescents an executive strategy to facilitate self-generation of task-specific strategies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University of Kansas, Lawrence.
17.
EllisE.S. (1985b). STING: An executive strategy for problem solving.Columbia, SC: Smart Strategy Associates.
18.
EllisE.S. (1986, February). Teaching adolescents to use an executive strategy. Paper presented at The Association for Children with Learning Disabilities International Conference, New York.
19.
EllisE.S. (in press). DEFENDS: A strategy for defending a position in writing.Lawrence, KS: Excel Enterprises, Inc.
20.
EllisE.S.LenzB.K., & SabornieE.J. (in press a). Generalization and adaptation of learning strategies to natural environments: Part 1-Critical agents. Remedial and Special Education.
21.
EllisE.S.LenzB.K., & SabornieE.J. (in press b). Generalization and adaptation of learning strategies to natural environments: Part 2-Research into practice. Remedial and Special Education.
22.
FewellD.H. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and learning strategies: A combined approach to educating learning disabled adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
23.
GravesA. (1986). Effects of direct instruction and metacomprehension training on finding main ideas. Learning Disabilities Research, 1, 90–100.
24.
LenzB.K.DeshlerD.D.SchumakerJ.B., & BealsV.C. (1984). The word identification strategy.Lawrence: The University of Kansas.
25.
LevinJ.R. (1981). On functions of pictures in prose. In F.J. Pirozzolo & M.C. Wittrock (Eds.), Neuropsychological and cognitive processes in reading (pp. 203–228). New York: Academic Press.
26.
MastropieriM.A.ScruggsT.E., & LevinJ.R. (1985). Memory strategy instruction with learning disabled students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 18, 94–100.
MastropieriM.A.ScruggsT.E.McLoomeB., & LevinJ.R. (in press). Facilitating the acquisition of science classifications in learning disabled students, learning Disability Quarterly.
29.
MeichenbaumD. (1980). Congnitive behavior modification with exceptional children: A promise yet unfulfilled. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 7 (1), 83–88.
30.
NagelD.R.SchumakerJ.B., & DeshlerD.D. (1986). The FIRST-Letter mnemonic strategy.Lawrence: University of Kansas Institute for Research in Learning Disabilities.
31.
PressleyM.LevinJ.R., & DelaneyH.D. (1982) The mnemonic keyword method. Review of Educational Research, 52, 61–92.
32.
SchmidtJ.L. (1983). A component analysis of five generalization conditions on secondary LD students' written language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The University of Kansas, Lawrence.
33.
SchneiderW. (1985). Developmental trends in the metamemory-memory relationship: An integrated review. In C. Forrest-Pressley, G.E. MacKinnon, & T.G. Waller (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance.New York: Academic Press.
34.
SchumakerJ.B.DeshlerD.D.AlleyG.R., & WarnerM.M. (1983). Toward the development of an intervention model for learning disabled adolescents. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 4 (1), 45–84.
35.
SchumakerJ.B.DeshlerD.D.DentonP.AlleyG.R.ClarkF.L., & WarnerM.M. (1982). Multipass: A learning strategy for improving reading comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 5, 409–414.
36.
SchumakerJ.B.DeshlerD.D., & EllisE.S. (1986). Intervention issues related to the education of LD adolescents. In WongB.K. & TorgesonJ. (Eds.), Psychological and educational perspectives in learning disabilities.New York: Academic Press.
37.
SchumakerJ.B.DentonP., & DeshlerD.D. (1984). The paraphrasing strategy.Lawrence: The University of Kansas.
38.
SchumakerJ.B.NolanS.M., & DeshlerD.D. (1985). The error monitoring strategy.Lawrence: The University of Kansas.
39.
ScruggsT.E.MastropieriM.A.LevinJ.R.McLooneB.GaffneyJ.S., & PraterM.A. (1985). Increasing content-area learning: A comparison of mnemonic and visual-spatial direct instruction. Learning Disabilities Research, 1, 18–31.
40.
WarnerM.M.AlleyG.R.SchumakerJ.B.DeshlerD.D., & ClarkF. (1980). An epidemiological study of learning disabled adolescents in secondary schools: Achievement and ability, socioeconomic status, and school experiences (Research Report #13). Lawrence: The University of Kansas Institute for Research in Learning Disabilities.
41.
WongB.Y.L., & JonesW. (1982). Increasing metacomprehension in learning-disabled and normally-achieving students through self-questioning training. Learning Disability Quarterly, 5, 228–240.
42.
WongB.Y.L. (1985a). Metacognition and learning disabilities. In WallerT.G.Forrest-PressleyD. & MacKinnonE. (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance.New York: Academic Press.
43.
WongB.Y.L. (1985b). Issues in cognitive-behavioral interventions in academic skill areas. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2, 123–131.
44.
ZigmondN.KerrM.M.BrownG., & HarrisA. (1984, ApriI). School survival skills in secondary school age special education students. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.
