CORE: The Road from Interracialism to Black Power*

The Urban League, which strictly speaking was not one of the protest organizations, was an exception; since its inception its work had been basically carried out by paid staff.

Bernice Fisher , "Confessions of an Ex-Liberal," MS, n.d. (1961), James Farmer Papers, courtesy of James Farmer; James Farmer, "The Race Logic of Pacifism," Fellowship, VIII (February, 1942), p. 25; Farmer, editorial, in Equality, I (November 1944), p. 2.

At one point CORE had sought to interest Wilson Head, a black pacifist, in the position. See George Houser to Wilson Head, October 15, 1946, CORE Archives, State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

Rudolph Lombard , "Staff Reorganization of CORE," MS, n.d. (1961 or 1962), copy consulted in files at CORE national office, New York City; Marvin Rich to Charles Oldham, November 10, 1960, Marvin Rich Papers, courtesy of Marvin Rich; Minutes of the CORE National Action Committee, December 4, 1960, Charles Oldham Papers, courtesy of Charles Oldham; Anna Holden, " Redraft of Minutes of National Action Committee, December 4, 1960 ," Oldham Papers; Confidential interviews.

Philadelphia CORE, Annual Report to the National Convention, July 1, 1962, CORE Archives; Confidential interviews.

Confidential Interview.

James Farmer , Freedom - When? (New York, 1965 ), p. 90.

Robert B. Gore , "Black on Black," MS, n.d. (1962), CORE Archives, Wisconsin.

Inge Bell , CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence (New York , 1968), p. 100.

Quotations from Genevieve Hughes to Marvin Rich, July 19, 1962, CORE Archives, Wisconsin; and San Francisco CORE-LATOR, July 1962, CORE Archives, Wisconsin. Also confidential interviews. 11 Genevieve Hughes, Field Report, June 11, 1962, CORE Archives, Wisconsin.

For discussions of CORE's change toward community organization see especially James Farmer, "A Few Guidelines for Organizational Expansion ," October 9, 1964, CORE Archives, Wisconsin; Farmer, "Annual Report to the CORE National Convention, Durham, N.C., July 1, 1965," printed in August Meier , Elliott Rudwick , and Francis Broderick , eds., Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Century (Indianapolis, 1971), pp. 460-66; Minutes of 1965 CORE Convention, CORE Archives, Wisconsin.

For critique of ghetto-orientation as leading to nationalism and separatism see especially statements of the former New York CORE Chairman, Clarence Funnye, "Outline of a Demonstration Project to Devise Methods for Deghettoization of Harlem," October, 1964, CORE Archives, Atlanta; "New Directions for the Civil Rights Movement ," November 16, 1964, in Ibid; and New York CORE, Report to the National Convention, July 1965, CORE Archives, Wisconsin.

In addition to interviews, see especially the following statements of ideology of Cleveland leaders, who had a critical influence in the changes in CORE nationally: "Summary of Activities, Cleveland CORE, July 1963 to July 1964," MS, 1964, Arthur Evans Papers, courtesy of Arthur Evans, former chairman of Cleveland CORE, and quotation from Ruth Turner in Robert Penn Warren , Who Speaks for the Negro? ( New York, 1965), p. 381.

Carlotta T. Smith to James T. McCain, February 22, 1963, CORE Archives, Wisconsin; Richard Haley to New Orleans CORE, March 13, 1962, CORE Archives, Wisconsin; see also Bell , CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence, pp. 100-101.

Mrs. Bruce Klunder , "My Husband Died for Democracy," Ebony, XIX (June 1964), p. 35.

Confidential interviews; see also Robert L. Bailey , "Why My Chapter Failed," November 27, 1964, Genevieve Hughes papers, courtesy of Genevieve Hughes Houghton; former CORE West Coast regional field secretary.

Diane Callaghan to unidentified individuals n.d. (ca. December 1964), CORE West Coast Office Archives, State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

Confidential interview.

New York Times, July 4, 1965.

Minutes of Meeting of the National Action Council and Staff, June 29, 1965, Robert Curvin Papers, courtesy of Robert Curvin.

Minutes of the 1965 annual convention, CORE Archives, Wisconsin.

Ibid., "CORE National Convention...Constitutional Changes ," 1965, copy consulted at CORE National Office, New York City.

Minutes, National Action Council Meeting, April 10-11, 1965, closed session, Curvin papers, and CORE Archives, Wisconsin; George Wiley to National Action Council, April 22, 1965, George Wiley papers, courtesy of George Wiley, formerly associate national director of CORE; and Minutes, National Action Council Meeting, July 6, 1965, closed session, CORE Archives, Atlanta. Rich was succeeded by Alan Gartner, who was permitted to serve only on a temporary basis until a qualified black was located.

James Peck to Farmer, July 27, 1965, CORE Archives, Wisconsin; Peck to Farmer, December 6, 1965, CORE Archives, Atlanta.

Peck to Farmer, December 6, 1965, CORE Archives, Atlanta.

Peck to Farmer, July 27, 1965, CORE Archives, Wisconsin. See also Alan Gartner to National Action Council, August 12, 1965, Curvin Papers; Peck to Farmer, November 11, 1965, CORE Archives, Atlanta.

Confidential interviews; Marlene Wilson to Floyd McKissick, January 17, 1966, CORE Archives, Atlanta.

"Draft, Minutes of 23rd Annual Convention of CORE, July 1-4, 1966," copy consulted at CORE National Office, New York City; C.A. Valentine, "Notes on Resolutions Put Forward at the CORE National Convention, Baltimore, July 4, 1966," Edward Singler Papers, Courtesy Edward Singler, former chairman Seattle CORE; Baltimore Sun, July 5, 1966.

Oakland, California, Tribune, July 4, 5, 1967.

"A Brief History of the Congress of Racial Equality, 1942-1969 ," February, 1969, Copy consulted at CORE National Office, New York City.

National CORE press release, September 26, 1968, Marvin Rich Papers; Interview with Roy Innis, U.S. News and World Report, LXV (November 25, 1968), p. 60; St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 15, 1968.