Volunteers represent an important resource for nonprofit organizations. The competition for volunteers is rising, increasing the pressure to optimize volunteer recruiting. One way to recruit volunteers is the use of volunteering appeals. To help optimize such volunteering appeals, we conducted two conjoint studies to identify the importance of design attributes of volunteering appeals as well as the utilities of the different attribute levels for potential volunteers by using choice-based conjoint analysis. The conjoint analyses are based on two student samples. We provide a segmentation of volunteers, allowing nonprofit organizations to design volunteering appeals according to specific target groups.
AntonettiP.MaklanS. (2014). Feelings that make a difference: How guilt and pride convince consumers of the effectiveness of sustainable consumption choices. Journal of Business Ethics, 124(1), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1841-9
2.
BachmanJ. R.BackmanK. F.NormanW. C. (2014). A segmentation of volunteers at the 2013 Austin city limits music festival: Insights and future directions. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 15(4), 298–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/15470148.2014.958634
3.
BagwellK. (2007). The economic analysis of advertising. In ArmstrongM.PorterR. (Eds.), Handbook of industrial organization (3rd ed., pp. 1701–1844). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1573-448X(06)03028-7
4.
BeckerA. (2018). An experimental study of voluntary nonprofit accountability and effects on public trust, reputation, perceived quality, and donation behavior. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 47(3), 562–582. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764018756200
5.
BeierleinC.KovalevaA.KemperC. J.RammstedtB. (2012). Ein Messinstrument zur Erfassung subjektiver Kompetenzerwartungen. Allgemeine Selbstwirksamkeit Kurzskala (ASKU) (Working Papers 2012|17). GESIS—Leibniz-Institut für Sozialwissenschaften. https://www.testarchiv.eu/de/test/9006490
6.
BonroyO.ConstantatosC. (2008). On the use of labels in credence goods markets. Journal of Regulatory Economics, 33(3), 237–252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11149-008-9058-z
7.
BrayleyN.ObstP. L.WhiteK. M.LewisI. M.WarburtonJ.SpencerN. M. (2015). Examining the predictive value of combining the theory of planned behaviour and the volunteer functions inventory. Australian Journal of Psychology, 67(3), 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12078
CallowM. (2004). Identifying promotional appeals for targeting potential volunteers: An exploratory study on volunteering motives among retirees. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 9(3), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1002/nvsm.252
ChinmanM. J.WandersmanA. (1999). The benefits and costs of volunteering in community organizations: Review and practical implications. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 28(1), 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764099281004
13.
CialdiniR. B.KenrickD. T. (1976). Altruism as hedonism: A social development perspective on the relationship of negative mood state and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(5), 907–914. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.34.5.907
14.
ClaryE. G.SnyderM. (1999). The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(5), 156–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00037
15.
ClaryE. G.SnyderM.CopelandJ. T.FrenchS. A. (1994). Promoting volunteerism: An empirical examination of the appeal of persuasive messages. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 23(3), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/089976409402300306
16.
ClaryE. G.SnyderM.RidgeR. D.CopelandJ.StukasA. A.HaugenJ.MieneP. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1516–1530. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1516
17.
ClaryE. G.SnyderM.RidgeR. D.MieneP. K.HaugenJ. A. (1994). Matching messages to motives in persuasion: A functional approach to promoting volunteerism. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(13), 1129–1146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb01548.x
18.
DeeryM.JagoL.MairJ. (2011). Volunteering for museums: The variation in motives across volunteer age groups. Curator: The Museum Journal, 54(3), 313–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2151-6952.2011.00094.x
19.
DemirF. O.KireçciA. N.Yavuz GörkemŞ. (2020). Deepening knowledge on volunteers using a marketing perspective: Segmenting Turkish volunteers according to their motivations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 49(4), 707–733. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764019892623
20.
DolnicarS.RandleM. (2007a). The international volunteering market: Market segments and competitive relations. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 12(4), 350–370. https://doi.org/10.1002/nvsm.292
21.
DolnicarS.RandleM. (2007b). What motivates which volunteers? Psychographic heterogeneity among volunteers in Australia. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 18(2), 135–155. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-007-9037-5
22.
EdenD.KinnarJ. (1991). Modeling Galatea: Boosting self-efficacy to increase volunteering. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(6), 770–780. http://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.6.770
23.
EggersF.SattlerH.TeichertT.VölcknerF. (2022). Choice-based conjoint analysis. In HomburgC.KlarmannM.VombergA. (Eds.), Handbook of market research (pp. 781–819). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57413-4_23
24.
EuskeN. A.EuskeK. J. (1991). Institutional theory: Employing the other side of rationality in nonprofit organizations. British Journal of Management, 2(2), 81–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.1991.tb00018.x
25.
FengN. C.NeelyD. G.SlattenL. A. D. (2016). Accountability standards for nonprofit organizations: Do organizations benefit from certification programs?International Journal of Public Administration, 39(6), 470–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2015.1023444
26.
FrancisJ. E. (2011). The functions and norms that drive university student volunteering. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 16(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/nvsm.390
27.
GarverM. S.DivineR. L.SprallsS. A. (2009). Segmentation analysis of the volunteering preferences of university students. Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 21(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495140802111893
28.
GreenP. E.SrinivasanV. (1990). Conjoint analysis in marketing: New developments with implications for research and practice. Journal of Marketing, 54(4), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299005400402
29.
GrossoA.CharbonneauÉ.Van RyzinG. G. (2017). How citizens respond to outputs, outcomes, and costs: A survey experiment about an HIV/AIDS program. International Public Management Journal, 20(1), 160–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2016.1143425
30.
GugertyM. K. (2009). Signaling virtue: Voluntary accountability programs among nonprofit organizations. Policy Sciences, 42(3), 243–273. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-009-9085-3
31.
HealdD. (2006). Transparency as an instrumental value. In HoodC.HealdD. (Eds.), Transparency: The key to better governance? Proceedings of the British academy (Vol. 135, pp. 59–74). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.5871/bacad/9780197263839.003.0004
32.
HolmesK.EdwardsD. (2008). Volunteers as hosts and guests in museums. In LyonsK. D.WearingS. (Eds.), Journeys of discovery in volunteer tourism: International case study perspectives (pp. 155–165). CABI.
33.
HoriuchiY.MarkovichZ.YamamotoT. (2022). Does conjoint analysis mitigate social desirability bias?Political Analysis, 30(4), 535–549. https://doi.org/10.1017/pan.2021.30
34.
JeongH. J.KooD. M. (2015). Volunteering as a mechanism to reduce guilt over purchasing luxury items. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 24(7), 758–769. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-01-2015-0784
35.
JohnsonR.OrmeB. (1997). Including hold out choice tasks in conjoint studies (Research paper series). Sawtooth Software.
36.
KimE.FredlineL.CuskellyG. (2018). Heterogeneity of sport event volunteer motivations: A segmentation approach. Tourism Management, 68, 375–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.04.004
LancasterK. J. (1966). A new approach to consumer theory. Journal of Political Economy, 74(2), 132–157. https://doi.org/10.1086/259131
39.
LeeN. R.KotlerP. (2019). Social marketing: Behavior change for social good. Sage.
40.
LeeY. J.BrudneyJ. L. (2009). Rational volunteering: A benefit-cost approach. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 29(9/10), 512–530. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443330910986298
41.
LeeY. J.WonD. (2011). Attributes influencing college students’ participation in volunteering: A conjoint analysis. International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, 8(2), 149–162. http://doi.org/10.1007/s12208-011-0074-9
42.
LiketK. C.MaasK. (2015). Nonprofit organizational effectiveness: Analysis of best practices. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 44(2), 268–296. http://doi.org/10.1177/0899764013510064
43.
LindenmeierJ. (2008). Promoting volunteerism: Effects of self-efficacy, advertisement-induced emotional arousal, perceived costs of volunteering, and message framing. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 19(1), 43–65. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-008-9054-z
44.
LindseyL. L. M. (2005). Anticipated guilt as behavioral motivation: An examination of appeals to help unknown others through bone marrow donation. Human Communication Research, 31(4), 453–481. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/31.4.453
45.
LockeE. A.FrederickE.LeeC.BobkoP. (1984). Effect of self-efficacy, goals, and task strategies on task performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(2), 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.241
46.
LunardoR.SaintivesC. (2018). Coping with the ambivalent emotions of guilt and pride in the service context. Journal of Services Marketing, 32(3), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSM-01-2017-0003
47.
MewsM.BoenigkS. (2013). Does organizational reputation influence the willingness to donate blood?International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing, 10(1), 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12208-012-0090-4
48.
MichieS. (2009). Pride and gratitude: How positive emotions influence the prosocial behaviors of organizational leaders. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 15(4), 393–403. http://doi.org/10.1177/1548051809333338
49.
MurrayG. R.MatlandR. E. (2015). “You’ve gone too far”: Social pressure mobilization, reactance, and individual differences. Journal of Political Marketing, 14(4), 333–351. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377857.2015.1086135
NylundM. (2018). Mixed motives of young Nordic volunteers. In HelenaH.WallaceC. (Eds.), Youth, citizenship and empowerment (4th ed., pp. 91–109). Routledge. http://doi.org/10.4324/9781315182902-10
52.
OnwezenM. C.BartelsJ.AntonidesG. (2014). The self-regulatory function of anticipated pride and guilt in a sustainable and healthy consumption context. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44(1), 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1991
53.
PaxtonP.VelascoK.ResslerR. W. (2020). Does use of emotion increase donations and volunteers for nonprofits?American Sociological Review, 85(6), 1051–1083. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122420960104
54.
PengS.KimM.DeatF. (2019). The effects of nonprofit reputation on charitable giving: A survey experiment. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 30(4), 811–827. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-019-00130-7
55.
PriemerJ.Corcoran-SchliemannB.GeueD.KrimmerH.Schulz-SandhofK. (2019). Finanzierung der Zivilgesellschaft. In KrimmerH. (Ed.), Datenreport Zivilgesellschaft (pp. 113–144). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-22958-0
56.
RennerS.LindenmeierJ.TscheulinD. K.DrevsF. (2013). Guilt appeals and prosocial behavior: An experimental analysis of the effects of anticipatory versus reactive guilt appeals on the effectiveness of blood donor appeals. Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 25(3), 237–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495142.2013.816595
SeptiantoF.ParamitaW. (2021). Sad but smiling? How the combination of happy victim images and sad message appeals increase prosocial behavior. Marketing Letters, 32(1), 91–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-020-09553-5
60.
SeptiantoF.SungB.SeoY.TugimanN. (2018). Proud volunteers: The role of self- and vicarious-pride in promoting volunteering. Marketing Letters, 29(4), 501–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-018-9472-7
61.
ShieldsP. O. (2009). Young adult volunteers: Recruitment appeals and other marketing considerations. Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, 21(2), 139–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495140802528658
62.
SilviaC.ChildC.WitesmanE. (2023). The value of being nonprofit: A new look at Hansmann’s contract failure theory. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/08997640231203147
63.
SimonsonJ.KelleN.KausmannC.KarnickN.ArriagadaC.Hagen C.HameisterN.HuxholdO.Tesch-RömerC. (2021). Freiwilliges Engagement in Deutschland: Zentrale Ergebnisse des fünften Deutschen Freiwilligensurveys (FWS 2019). https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-72058-4
SticeE. (1992). The similarities between cognitive dissonance and guilt: Confession as a relief of dissonance. Current Psychology, 11(1), 69–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686829
66.
StolinskiA. M.RyanC. S.HausmannL. R. M.WernliM. A. (2004). Empathy, guilt, volunteer experiences, and intentions to continue volunteering among buddy volunteers in an AIDS organization. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 9(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9861.2004.tb00089.x
67.
SwansonL. A. (1987). The persuasive effect of volunteering negative information in advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 6(3), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.1987.11107022
68.
TaniguchiH. (2012). The determinants of formal and informal volunteering: Evidence from the American Time Use Survey. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 23(4), 920–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-011-9236-y
69.
TrautweinS.LiberatoreF.LindenmeierJ.von SchnurbeinG. (2020). Satisfaction with informal volunteering during the COVID-19 crisis: An empirical study considering a Swiss online volunteering platform. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 49(6), 1142–1151. http://doi.org/10.1177/0899764020964595
70.
Tremblay-BoireJ.PrakashA. (2015). Accountability.org: Online disclosures by US nonprofits. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 26(2), 693–719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-014-9452-3
71.
Van RyzinG. G.GrossoA.CharbonneauÉ. (2021). Evidence of an output bias in the judgment of public performance: A replication and extension. Public Performance and Management Review, 44(3), 451–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/15309576.2020.1835679
72.
VocinoA.PolonskyM.DolnicarS. (2015). Segmenting Australian online panellists based on volunteering motivations. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 27(1), 4–22. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJML-03-2014-0036
73.
WillemsJ.JegersM.FaulkL. (2016). Organizational effectiveness reputation in the nonprofit sector. Public Performance and Management Review, 39(2), 454–475. https://doi.org/10.1080/15309576.2015.1108802
74.
WilliamsL. A.DaviesJ. (2017). Beyond the self: Pride felt in relation to others. In CarterJ. A.GordonE. C. (Eds.), The moral psychology of pride (Moral psychology of the emotions #2, pp. 43–68). Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group.
75.
WilliamsL. A.DeStenoD. (2008). Pride and perseverance: The motivational role of pride. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 1007–1017. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1007
YinonY.BizmanA.CohenS.SegevA. (1976). Effects of guilt-arousal communications on volunteering to the civil guard: A field experiment. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 7(6), 493–494. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03337260
78.
ZhouS.Kodama MuscenteK. (2022). Meta-analysis of volunteer motives using the volunteer functions inventory to predict volunteer satisfaction, commitment, and behavior. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/089976402211295
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
