This research tested two models of stress buffering to examine how older women living alone adapted to the stresses in their daily lives. No support was found for the suppressor model, but some support for the moderator model of stress buffering. Both perceived support and enacted support moderated the effect of stressors for psychological distress. Confidants were an important source of support for these older women. Both the perception that a friend was available with whom they could discuss their problems and the frequency of confiding moderated the negative impact of stress for psychological distress. Although confidants were a significant source of support for both Black and White women, support from relatives and friends moderated the effect of stressors only for Black women. Black women experienced greater economic hardship and more functional limitations than White women, but they draw on multiple sources of support to adapt to those stressors.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anson, O. (1988). Evidence that elderly women living alone may be in better health than their counterparts. Sociology and Social Research, 72(January), 114-117.
2.
Arling, G. (1987). Strain, social support and distress in old age. Journal of Gerontology, 42, 107-113.
3.
Blazer, D. (1980). Life events, mental health functioning and the use of health care services by the elderly. American Journal of Public Health, 70, 1174-1178.
4.
Blazer, D. , & Hughes, D. C. (1991). Subjective social support and depressive symptoms in major depression: Separate phenomena or epiphenomena. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 25, 191-203.
5.
Chatters, L. , Taylor, R., & Jackson, J. (1986). Size and composition of the informal helper network of elderly Blacks. Journal of Gerontology, 40, 94-100.
6.
Cohen, A. (1983). Comparing regression coefficients across subsamples: A study of the statistical test.Sociological Methods and Research, 12, 77-94.
7.
Cohen, S. , & Kay, G. (1984). Social support, stress and the buffering hypothesis: A theoretical analysis. In A. Baum, J. E. Singer, & S. E. Taylor (Eds.), Handbook of psychology and health, Vol. 4 (pp. 253-267). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
8.
Cohen, S. , & Syme, S. L. (1985). Issues in the study and application of social support. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.), Social support and health (pp. 1-22). New York: Academic Press.
9.
Connidis, I. A. , & Davies, L. (1992). Confidants and companions: Choices in later life. Journal of Gerontology, 47(3), S115-S122.
10.
Cutrona, C. , Russell, D., & Rose, J. (1986). Social support and adaptation to stress. Journal of Psychology and Aging, 1, 47-54.
11.
Dean, A. , Kolody, B., & Wood, P. (1990). Effects of social support from various sources on depression in elderly persons. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 31, 148-161.
12.
Dressler, W. W. (1985). Extended family relationships, social support and mental health in a southern Black community. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 26, 39-48.
13.
George, L. K. (1988). Social participation in later life: Black-White differences. In J. S. Jackson (Ed.), The Black American elderly: Research on physical and psychological health (pp. 99-128). New York: Springer.
14.
Hanson, S. L. , Sauer, W. J., & Seelbach, W. C. (1983). Racial and cohort variations in filial responsibility norms. The Gerontologist, 23, 626-631.
15.
Hanushek, E. A. , & Jackson, J. J. (1977). Statistical methods for social scientists. New York: Academic Press.
16.
Harris, L. (1975). The myth and reality of aging in America. Washington, DC: National Council on Aging.
17.
Hatch, L. R. (1991). Informal support patterns of older African-American and White women. Research on Aging, 13, 144-170.
18.
Holden, K. C. (1988). Poverty and living arrangements among older women: Are changes in economic well-being underestimated?Journal of Gerontology, 43(1), S22-S27.
19.
Jaccard, J. , Turrisi, R., & Wan, C. K. (1990). Interaction effects in multiple regression. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
20.
Jackson, D. J. , Longino, C. P., Jr., Zimmerman, R. S., & Bradsher, J. E. (1991). Environmental adjustments to declining functional ability: Residential mobility and living arrangements. Research on Aging, 13, 289-309.
21.
Katz, S. , Ford, A. B., Moskowitz, R. W., Jackson, B. A., & Jaffe, M. W. (1963). Studies of illness in the aged. The index of ADL: A standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function. Journal of the American Medical Association, 963, 914-919.
22.
Kessler, R. C. , & McLeod, J. D. (1986). Social support and mental health in community samples. In S. Cohen & S. Leonard Syme (Eds.), Social Support and Health (pp. 219-240). New York: Academic Press.
23.
Kovar, M. G. (1986). Aging in the eighties, age 65 years and older and living alone. Contacts with family, friends and neighbors. Advanced Data from Vital and Health Statistics, 116, 1-9.
24.
Krause, N. (1987). Life stress, social support and self esteem in an elderly population. Psychology and Aging, 2, 349-356.
25.
Krause, N. (1989). Issues of measurement and analysis in studies of social support, aging and health. In K. S. Markides & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Aging, stress, & health (pp. 43-68). New York: Wiley.
26.
Liang, J. , & Whitelaw, N. A. (1990). Assessing the physical and mental health of the elderly. In S. Stahl (Ed.), The legacy of longevity (pp. 35-53). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
27.
Mirowsky, J. , & Ross, C. E. (1992). Age and depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 187-205.
28.
Mutran, E. (1985). Intergenerational family support among Blacks and Whites: Response to culture or to socioeconomic differences. Journal of Gerontology, 40, S382-S389.
29.
Myers, D. R. , & Dickerson, B. E. (1990). Intragenerational interdependence among older, low-income African American, Mexican American, and Anglo siblings. Family Perspectives, 24, 217-243.
30.
Revicki, D. A. , & Mitchell, J. P. (1990). Strain, social support and mental health in rural elderly individuals. Journal of Gerontology, 45, S267-S274.
31.
Schwab, J. J. , Bell, R. A., Warheit, G. A., & Schwab, R. B. (1979). Social order and mental health: The Florida Health Study. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
32.
Soldo, B. J. , Sharma, M., & Campbell, R. T. (1984). Determinants of the community living arrangements of older unmarried women. Journal of Gerontology, 39, 492-498.
33.
Stack, C. (1974). All our kin: Strategies for survival in a Black community. New York: Harper & Row.
Taylor, R. J. (1985). The extended family as a source of support to elderly Blacks. Gerontologists, 25, 488-495.
36.
Ulbrich, P. M. (1990). Living arrangements, health and illness behavior among older Black and White women. Unpublished paper.
37.
Ulbrich, P. M. , & Warheit, G. J. (1989). Social support and distress among older Black and White adults. Journal of Aging & Health, 1, 286-305.
38.
Ulbrich, P. M. , Warheit, G. J., & Zimmerman, R. S. (1989). Race, socioeconomic status and mental health: Examining the vulnerability hypothesis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 131-146.
39.
Ward, R. A. , LaGory, M., & Sherman, S. R. (1985). Social ties and morale of the elderly. Sociology and Social Research, 70, 102-106.
40.
Warheit, G. J. , Vega, W., Shimizu, D., & Meinhardt, K. (1982). Interpersonal coping networks and mental health problems among four race-ethnic groups. Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 312-324.
41.
Wellman, B. (1979). The community question. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1201-1231.
42.
Wethington, E. , & Kessler, R. C. (1986). Perceived support, received support and adjustment to stressful events. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 27, 78-89.
43.
Wheaton, B. (1985). Models of the stress-buffering functions of coping resources. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 26, 352-364.
44.
Worobey, J. L. , & Angel, R. J. (1990a). Functional capacity and living arrangements of unmarried elderly persons. Journal of Gerontology, 45, S95-S101.
45.
Worobey, J. L. , & Angel, R. J. (1990b). Poverty and health: Older minority women and the rise of the female headed household. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 31, 370-383.
