Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2024-12
The Relationship Between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Misuse and Smoking Among Aging Men Who Have Sex With Men: No Evidence of Exercise or Volunteering Impact
To determine if the association between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use (alcohol misuse or smoking tobacco) is mediated/moderated by exercise or volunteering among aging (≥40 years) men who have sex with men (MSM), and if this mediation/moderation differs by HIV serostatus.
Methods
Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study data were used. Three datasets with PTSD measured during different time periods (10/1/2017-3/31/2018, 898 men; 4/1/2018-9/30/2018, 890 men; 10/1/2018-3/31/2019, 895 men) were analyzed. Longitudinal mediation analyses estimated the mediation effect of exercise and volunteering on the outcomes.
Results
Nine percent of MSM had evidence of PTSD. There was no statistically significant mediation effect of exercise or volunteering regardless of substance use outcome. The odds of smoking at a future visit among MSM with PTSD were approximately double those of MSM without PTSD. Results did not differ by HIV serostatus.
Discussion
There is a particular need for effective smoking cessation interventions for aging MSM with PTSD.
AbrahamH. D.FavaM. (1999). Order of onset of substance abuse and depression in a sample of depressed outpatients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 40(1), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-440x(99)90076-7
ArmstrongN. M.SurkanP. J.TreismanG. J.SacktorN. C.IrwinM. R.TeplinL. A.StallR. C.JacobsonL. P.AbrahamA. G. (2019). Optimal metrics for identifying long term patterns of depression in older HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected men who have sex with men. Aging & Mental Health, 23(4), 507–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2017.1423037
4.
BoartsJ. M.SledjeskiE. M.BogartL. M.DelahantyD. L. (2006). The differential impact of PTSD and depression on HIV disease markers and adherence to HAART in people living with HIV. AIDS and Behavior, 10(3), 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-006-9069-7
5.
BowenS.De BoerD.BergmanA. L. (2017). The role of mindfulness as approach-based coping in the PTSD-substance abuse cycle. Addictive Behaviors, 64, 212–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.08.043
6.
BradleyK. A.McDonellM. B.BushK.KivlahanD. R.DiehrP.FihnS. D. (1998). The AUDIT alcohol consumption questions. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(8), 1842–1849. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000374-199811000-00034
7.
BradleyR.GreeneJ.RussE.DutraL.WestenD. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. Ajp, 162(2), 214–227. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.214
8.
Brennan-IngM.HaberlenS.WareD.EganJ. E.BrownA. L.MeanleyS.PalellaF. J.BolanR.CookJ. A.OkaforC. N.FriedmanM. R.PlankeyM. W. (2022). Psychological connection to the gay community and negative self-appraisals in middle-aged and older men who have sex with men: The mediating effects of fitness engagement. The Journals of Gerontology: Serie Bibliographique, 77(1), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab076
9.
BriefD. J.RubinA.KeaneT. M.EnggasserJ. L.RoyM.HelmuthE.HermosJ.LachowiczM.RybinD.RosenbloomD. (2013). Web intervention for OEF/OIF veterans with problem drinking and PTSD symptoms: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(5), 890–900. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033697
BushK.KivlahanD. R.McDonellM. B.FihnS. D.BradleyK. A., &The AUDIT alcohol consumption questions (AUDIT-C) an effective brief screening test for problem drinking. (1998). Archives of Internal Medicine, 158(16), 1789–1795. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.158.16.1789
12.
CloitreM.HylandP.BissonJ. I.BrewinC. R.RobertsN. P.KaratziasT.ShevlinM. (2019). ICD‐11 posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: A population‐based study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(6), 833–842. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22454
13.
CraneH. M.McCaulM. E.ChanderG.HuttonH.NanceR. M.DelaneyJ. A.MerrillJ. O.LauB.MayerK. H.MugaveroM. J.MimiagaM.WilligJ. H.BurkholderG. A.DrozdD. R.FredericksenR. J.CropseyK.MooreR. D.SimoniJ. M.Christopher MathewsW. C.KitahataM. M. (2017). Prevalence and factors associated with hazardous alcohol use among persons living with HIV across the US in the current era of antiretroviral treatment. AIDS and Behavior, 21(7), 1914–1925. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-017-1740-7
14.
CuevasC. A.BollingerA. R.VielhauerM. J.MorganE. E.SohlerN. L.BriefD. J.MillerA. L.KeaneT. M. (2007). HIV/AIDS cost study. Journal of Trauma Practice, 5(4), 29–51. https://doi.org/10.1300/j189v05n04_02
15.
D'AvanzoP. A.HalkitisP. N.YuK.KapadiaF. (2016). Demographic, mental health, behavioral, and psychosocial factors associated with cigarette smoking status among young men who have sex with men: The P18 cohort study. LGBT Health, 3(5), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2015.0128
16.
DebellF.FearN. T.HeadM.Batt-RawdenS.GreenbergN.WesselyS.GoodwinL. (2014). A systematic review of the comorbidity between PTSD and alcohol misuse. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49(9), 1401–1425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0855-7
17.
DedertE. A.ResickP. A.DennisP. A.WilsonS. M.MooreS. D.BeckhamJ. C. (2019). Pilot trial of a combined cognitive processing therapy and smoking cessation treatment. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 13(4), 322–330. https://doi.org/10.1097/adm.0000000000000502
18.
DesrichardO.ValletF.AgrigoroaeiS.FagotD.SpiniD. (2018). Frailty in aging and its influence on perceived stress exposure and stress-related symptoms: Evidence from the Swiss Vivre/Leben/Vivere study. European Journal of Ageing, 15, 4, 331–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-017-0451-2
19.
DiGrandeL.PerrinM. A.ThorpeL. E.ThaljiL.MurphyJ.WuD.FarfelM.BrackbillR. M. (2008). Posttraumatic stress symptoms, PTSD, and risk factors among lower Manhattan residents 2-3 years after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(3), 264–273. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20345
20.
EganJ. E.HaberlenS. A.MeanleyS.WareD.BrownA. L.SiconolfiD.Brennan-IngM.StallR.PlankeyM. W.FriedmanM. R. (2021). Understanding patterns of healthy aging among men who have sex with men: Protocol for an observational cohort study. JMIR Res Protoc, 10(9), Article e25750. https://doi.org/10.2196/25750
21.
FluhartyM.TaylorA. E.GrabskiM.MunafòM. R. (2017). The association of cigarette smoking with depression and anxiety: A systematic review. Nictob, 19(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntw140
22.
FrazierE. L.SuttonM. Y.BrooksJ. T.ShouseR. L.WeiserJ. (2018). Trends in cigarette smoking among adults with HIV compared with the general adult population, United States - 2009-2014. Preventive Medicine, 111, 231–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.03.007
23.
FriedL. P.TangenC. M.WalstonJ.NewmanA. B.HirschC.GottdienerJ.SeemanT.TracyR.KopW. J.BurkeG.McBurnieM. A. (2001). Frailty in older adults: Evidence for a phenotype. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 56(3), M146–M157. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/56.3.m146
24.
FrostD. M.MeyerI. H. (2023). Minority stress theory: Application, critique, and continued relevance. Current Opinion in Psychology, 51, 101579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101579
25.
GaworA.HogervorstE.WilcocksonT. (2021). Does an acute bout of moderate exercise reduce alcohol craving in university students?Addictive Behaviors, 123, 107071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107071
26.
GenzA.BretzF.MiwaT.MiX.LeischF.ScheiplF.HothornT. (2021). mvtnorm: Multivariate Normal and t Distributions. R package version 1.1-3. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=mvtnorm
27.
GoldS. D.MarxB. P. (2007). Gay male sexual assault survivors: The relations among internalized homophobia, experiential avoidance, and psychological symptom severity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(3), 549–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.05.006
GrohD. R.JasonL. A.DavisM. I.OlsonB. D.FerrariJ. R. (2007). Friends, family, and alcohol abuse: An examination of general and alcohol-specific social support. American Journal on Addictions, 16(1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550490601080084
HegbergN. J.HayesJ. P.HayesS. M. (2019). Exercise intervention in PTSD: A narrative review and rationale for implementation. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 133. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00133
HerekG. M.CoganJ. C.GillisJ. R.GluntE. K. (1998). Correlates of internalized homophobia in a community sample of lesbians and gay men. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 2(1), 17–25.
34.
HerrickA. L.StallR.ChmielJ. S.GuadamuzT. E.PennimanT.ShoptawS.OstrowD.PlankeyM. W. (2013). It gets better: Resolution of internalized homophobia over time and associations with positive health outcomes among MSM. AIDS and Behavior, 17(4), 1423–1430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-012-0392-x
35.
HessolN. A.BarrettB. W.MargolickJ. B.PlankeyM.HussainS. K.SeabergE. C.MassadL. S. (2021). Risk of smoking-related cancers among women and men living with and without HIV. AIDS, 35(1), 101–114. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000002717
36.
HicksT. A.ThomasS. P.WilsonS. M.CalhounP. S.KuhnE. R.BeckhamJ. C. (2017). A preliminary investigation of a relapse prevention mobile application to maintain smoking abstinence among individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 13(1), 15–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504263.2016.1267828
37.
HileS. J.FeldmanM. B.AlexyE. R.IrvineM. K. (2016). Recent tobacco smoking is associated with poor HIV medical outcomes among HIV-infected individuals in New York. AIDS and Behavior, 20(8), 1722–1729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-015-1273-x
38.
HøjsgaardS.HalekohU.YanJ. (2006) The R package geepack for generalized estimating equations. Journal of Statistical Software, 15(2), 1–11.
39.
ImaiK.KeeleL.TingleyD. (2010). A general approach to causal mediation analysis. Psychological Methods, 15(4), 309–334. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020761
40.
ImelZ. E.WampoldB. E.MillerS. D.FlemingR. R. (2008). Distinctions without a difference: Direct comparisons of psychotherapies for alcohol use disorders. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22(4), 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013171
41.
IPAQ Research Committee. (2005). Guidelines for data processing and analysis of the international physical activity questionnaire (IPAQ) – short and long forms. http://www.ipaq.ki.se
42.
JeffreysM.CapehartB.FriedmanM. J. (2012). Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: Review with clinical applications. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 49(5), 703–716. https://doi.org/10.1682/jrrd.2011.09.0183
43.
JohnstonP. I.WrightS. W.OrrM.PearceF. A.StevensJ. W.HubbardR. B.ColliniP. J. (2021). Worldwide relative smoking prevalence among people living with and without HIV. AIDS, 35(6), 957–970. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000002815
44.
KahlerC. W.SpillaneN. S.DayA. M.CioeP. A.ParksA.LeventhalA. M.BrownR. A. (2015). Positive psychotherapy for smoking cessation: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 17(11), 1385–1392. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntv011
45.
KaplanB.GaliatsatosP.BrelandA.EissenbergT.CohenJ. E. (2021). Effectiveness of ENDS, NRT and medication for smoking cessation among cigarette-only users: A longitudinal analysis of PATH study wave 3 (2015–2016) and 4 (2016–2017), adult data. Tobacco Control, 32(3), 302–307. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2020-056448
46.
KaslowR. A.OstrowD. G.DetelsR.PhairJ. P.PolkB. F.RinaldoC. R. (1987). The multicenter AIDS cohort study: Rationale, organization, and selected characteristics of the participants. American Journal of Epidemiology, 126(2), 310–318. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/126.2.310
47.
KearnsN. T.CarlE.SteinA. T.VujanovicA. A.ZvolenskyM. J.SmitsJ. A.PowersM. B. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder and cigarette smoking: A systematic review. Depression and Anxiety, 35(11), 1056–1072. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22828
48.
KellyM. M.SidoH.ForsythJ. P.ZiedonisD. M.KalmanD.CooneyJ. L. (2015). Acceptance and commitment therapy smoking cessation treatment for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot study. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 11(1), 50–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504263.2014.992201
49.
KemppainenJ. K.EllerL. S.BunchE.HamiltonM. J.DoleP.HolzemerW.KirkseyK.NicholasP. K.CorlessI. B.ColemanC.NokesK. M.ReynoldsN.SefcikL.WantlandD.TsaiY.-F. (2006). Strategies for self-management of HIV-related anxiety. AIDS Care, 18(6), 597–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120500275726
50.
KimerlingR.CalhounK. S.ForehandR.ArmisteadL.MorseE.MorseP.ClarkR.ClarkL. (1999). Traumatic stress in HIV-infected women. AIDS Education and Prevention, 11(4), 321–330.
51.
LangeT.VansteelandtS.BekaertM. (2012). A simple unified approach for estimating natural direct and indirect effects. American Journal of Epidemiology, 176(3), 190–195. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwr525
52.
LappanS.ThorneC. B.LongD.HendricksP. S. (2020). Longitudinal and reciprocal relationships between psychological well-being and smoking. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 22(1), 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty185
53.
LaRoweL. R.DunsigerS. I.WilliamsD. M. (2023). Acute exercise-induced changes in motivation and behavioral expectation for quitting smoking as predictors of smoking behavior in women. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 37(3), 475–482. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000901
54.
LeGrandS.ReifS.SullivanK.MurrayK.BarlowM. L.WhettenK. (2015). A review of recent literature on trauma among individuals living with HIV. Current HIV, 12(4), 397–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-015-0288-2
55.
LewinsohnP. M.SeeleyJ. R.RobertsR. E.AllenN. B. (1997). Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) as a screening instrument for depression among community-residing older adults. Psychology and Aging, 12(2), 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.12.2.277
LynchW. J.PetersonA. B.SanchezV.AbelJ.SmithM. A. (2013). Exercise as a novel treatment for drug addiction: A neurobiological and stage-dependent hypothesis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(8), 1622–1644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.06.011
MäderU. R. S.MartinB. W.SchutzY.MartiB. (2006). Validity of four short physical activity questionnaires in middle-aged persons. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 38(7), 1255–1266. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000227310.18902.28
60.
ManthouE.GeorgakouliK.FatourosI. G.GianoulakisC.TheodorakisY.JamurtasA. Z. (2016). Role of exercise in the treatment of alcohol use disorders. Biomedical Reports, 4(5), 535–545. https://doi.org/10.3892/br.2016.626
61.
MarquesA. C. P. R.FormigoniM. L. O. S. (2001). Comparison of individual and group cognitive‐behavioral therapy for alcohol and/or drug‐dependent patients. Addiction, 96(6), 835–846. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.9668355.x
62.
MartinL.KageeA. (2011). Lifetime and HIV-related PTSD among persons recently diagnosed with HIV. AIDS and Behavior, 15(1), 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-008-9498-6
63.
MatthieuM. M.LawrenceK. A.Robertson-BlackmoreE. (2017). The impact of a civic service program on biopsychosocial outcomes of post 9/11 US military veterans. Psychiatry Research, 248, 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.12.028
64.
McCauleyJ. L.KilleenT.GrosD. F.BradyK. T.BackS. E. (2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder and co‐occurring substance use disorders: Advances in assessment and treatment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19(3), 283–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12006
65.
McLeanC. P.FitzgeraldH. (2016). Treating posttraumatic stress symptoms among people living with HIV: A critical review of intervention trials. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18(9), 83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-016-0724-z
66.
McMillanJ. M.GillM. J.PowerC.FujiwaraE.HoganD. B.RubinL. H. (2020). Comorbidities in older persons with controlled HIV infection: Correlations with frailty index subtypes. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 34(7), 284–294. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2020.0051
67.
MeanleyS.HaberlenS. A.OkaforC. N.BrownA.Brennan-IngM.WareD.EganJ. E.TeplinL. A.BolanR. K.FriedmanM. R.PlankeyM. W. (2020). Lifetime exposure to conversion therapy and psychosocial health among midlife and older adult men who have sex with men. The Gerontologist, 60(7), 1291–1302. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa069
68.
MittintyM. N.VansteelandtS. (2020). Longitudinal mediation analysis using natural effect models. American Journal of Epidemiology, 189(11), 1427–1435. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwaa092
69.
MonahanC. J.McDevitt-MurphyM. E.DennhardtA. A.SkidmoreJ. R.MartensM. P.MurphyJ. G. (2013). The impact of elevated posttraumatic stress on the efficacy of brief alcohol interventions for heavy drinking college students. Addictive Behaviors, 38(3), 1719–1725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.09.004
70.
MontañoD. E.KasprzykD. (2008). Theory of Reasoned action, theory of planned behavior, and the integrated behavioral model. In GlanzK.RimerB. K.ViswanathK. (Eds.), Health behavior and health education: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 67–96). Jossey-Bass
71.
MusickM. A.WilsonJ. (2003). Volunteering and depression: The role of psychological and social resources in different age groups. Social Science & Medicine, 56(2), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00025-4
72.
O'CleirighC.DaleS. K.ElsesserS.PantaloneD. W.MayerK. H.BradfordJ. B.SafrenS. A. (2015). Sexual minority specific and related traumatic experiences are associated with increased risk for smoking among gay and bisexual men. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 78(5), 472–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.02.004
73.
OkaforC. N.WareD.MeanleyS.Brennan-IngM.HaberlenS.TeplinL.MimiagaM. J.FriedmanM. R.PlankeyM. (2023). Individual-level psychosocial resiliencies as mediators of the relationship between internalized homophobia and depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older men living with and without HIV. AIDS and Behavior, 27(10):3171–3182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-023-04037-9
74.
OslinD. W.PettinatiH.VolpicelliJ. R. (2002). Alcoholism treatment adherence: Older age predicts better adherence and drinking outcomes. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 10(6), 740–747. https://doi.org/10.1097/00019442-200211000-00013
75.
PacellaM. L.ArmelieA.BoartsJ.WagnerG.JonesT.FeenyN.DelahantyD. L. (2012). The impact of prolonged exposure on PTSD symptoms and associated psychopathology in people living with HIV: A randomized test of concept. AIDS and Behavior, 16(5), 1327–1340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0076-y
76.
PavlovaM. K.LührM.LuhmannM. (2019a). Does participation in voluntary organizations protect against risky alcohol and tobacco use? Findings from the UK panel data. Preventive Medicine Reports, 14, 100885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.100885
77.
PavlovaM. K.LührM.LuhmannM. (2019b). Effects of voluntary memberships and volunteering on alcohol and tobacco use across the life course: Findings from the German Socio-Economic Panel. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 194, 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.10.013
78.
PearlJ. (2001). Direct and indirect effects. In Proceedings of the seventeenth conference on uncertainty in artificial intelligence. Morgan Kaufmann.
79.
Pericot-ValverdeI.ElliottR. J.MillerM. E.TideyJ. W.GaalemaD. E. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder and tobacco use: A systematic review and meta- analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 84, 238–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.04.024
80.
Phillips-HowardP. A.BellisM. A.BriantL. B.JonesH.DowningJ.KellyI. E.BirdT.CookP. A. (2010). Wellbeing, alcohol use and sexual activity in young teenagers: Findings from a cross-sectional survey in school children in North West England. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 5, 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-5-27
81.
PiliavinJ. A.SieglE. (2007). Health benefits of volunteering in the Wisconsin longitudinal study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 48(4), 450–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/002214650704800408
RaupachT.BrownJ.HerbecA.BroseL.WestR. (2014). A systematic review of studies assessing the association between adherence to smoking cessation medication and treatment success. Addiction, 109(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12319
84.
ReddyK. P.ParkerR. A.LosinaE.BaggettT. P.PaltielA. D.RigottiN. A.WeinsteinM. C.FreedbergK. A.WalenskyR. P. (2016). Impact of cigarette smoking and smoking cessation on life expectancy among people with HIV: A US-based modeling study. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 214(11), 1672–1681. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiw430
85.
ReddyS.DickA. M.GerberM. R.MitchellK. (2014). The effect of a yoga intervention on alcohol and drug abuse risk in veteran and civilian women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine, 20(10), 750–756. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2014.0014
86.
ReganS.MeigsJ. B.GrinspoonS. K.TriantV. A. (2016). Determinants of smoking and quitting in HIV-infected individuals. PLoS One, 11(4), Article e0153103. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153103
87.
RobertsA. L.AustinS. B.CorlissH. L.VandermorrisA. K.KoenenK. C. (2010). Pervasive trauma exposure among US sexual orientation minority adults and risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Public Health, 100(12), 2433–2441. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2009.168971
88.
RussellA. R.Nyame-MensahA.de WitA.HandyF. (2019). Volunteering and wellbeing among ageing adults: A longitudinal analysis. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 30, 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-018-0041-8
89.
SamsonA.LavigneR. M.MacPhersonP. (2009). Self-fulfillment despite barriers: Volunteer work of people living with HIV. AIDS Care, 21(11), 1425–1431. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120902814403
90.
SchnurrP. P.FriedmanM. J.FoyD. W.SheaM. T.HsiehF. Y.LavoriP. W.GlynnS. M.WattenbergM.BernardyN. C. (2003). Randomized trial of trauma-focused group therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from a Department of Veterans Affairs cooperative study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(5), 481–489. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.5.481
91.
SilvestreA. J.HyltonJ. B.JohnsonL. M.HoustonC.WittM.JacobsonL.OstrowD. (2006). Recruiting minority men who have sex with men for HIV research: Results from a 4-city campaign. American Journal of Public Health, 96(6), 1020–1027. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2005.072801
92.
SteadL. F.CarrollA. J.LancasterT. (2017). Group behaviour therapy programmes for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001007.pub3
93.
SteadL. F.PereraR.BullenC.MantD.Hartmann‐BoyceJ.CahillK.LancasterT. (2012). Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 11. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000146.pub4
TangC.GoldsamtL.MengJ.XiaoX.ZhangL.WilliamsA. B.WangH. (2020). Global estimate of the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder among adults living with HIV: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open, 10(4), Article e032435. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-032435
96.
Tchetgen TchetgenE. J.GlymourM. M.WeuveJ.RobinsJ. (2012). A cautionary note on specification of the correlation structure in inverse-probability-weighted estimation for repeated measures. Harvard University Biostatistics Working Paper Series
97.
UrsoiuF.MoleriuL.LungeanuD.PuschităM. (2018). The association between HIV clinical disease severity and psychiatric disorders as seen in Western Romania. AIDS Care, 30(11), 1368–1371. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2018.1455959
WagnerJ.BurgM.SiroisB. (2004). Social support and the transtheoretical model: Relationship of social support to smoking cessation stage, decisional balance, process use, and temptation. Addictive Behaviors, 29(5), 1039–1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.02.058
100.
WeathersF. W.LitzB. T.HuskaJ.KeaneT. (1994). The PTSD checklist-civilian version (PCL-C). National Center for PTSD.
101.
WightR. G.LeBlancA. J.De VriesB.DetelsR. (2012). Stress and mental health among midlife and older gay-identified men. American Journal of Public Health, 102(3), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2011.300384
102.
WilliamsonI. R. (2000). Internalized homophobia and health issues affecting lesbians and gay men. Health Education Research, 15(1), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/15.1.97
103.
YeeT. W. (2015). Vector generalized linear and additive models: With an implementation in R. Springer.
104.
YoshidaK.BartelA. (2021). tableone: Create 'table 1' to describe baseline characteristics with or without propensity score weights. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=tableone
105.
ZepfR.GreeneM.HessolN. A.JohnsonM. O.SantosG. M.JohnM. D.Dawson-RoseC. (2020). Syndemic conditions and medication adherence in older men living with HIV who have sex with men. AIDS Care
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
