Type 2 diabetes is prevalent in the elderly population. In the past five years, there has been an increased number of drugs with unique mechanisms of action which have become available for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Recent studies have shown that attaining optimal glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes will prevent or delay the complications associated with this disease. This article will review the management of type 2 diabetes.
Sinclair AJ, Robert IE, Croxson SC.Mortality in older people with diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med. 1997;14:639-47.
3.
The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group.The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329;977-86.
4.
American Diabetes Association.Implications of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (Position Statement . Diabetes. 1993;42:1555-8.
5.
Lebovitz HE.The DCCT and its implications in NIDDM. Clin Diabetes. 1994;12:3-4.
6.
Ohkubo Y, Kishikawa H, Araki, E, et al.Intensive insulin therapy prevents the progression of diabetic microvascular complications in Japanese patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a randomized prospective 6-year study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract . 1995;28:103-17.
7.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group.Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33. Lancet. 1998;352:837-53.
8.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group.Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34. Lancet. 1998;352:854-65.
9.
Defronzo RA, Bonadonna RC, Ferrannini E.Pathogenesis of NIDDM: a balanced overview. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:318-68.
10.
DeFronzo RA.The Lilly Lecture 1987. The triumvirate (β-cell, muscle, liver). A collusion responsible for NIDDM. Diabetes. 1988;37:667-87.
11.
Meneilly GS, Hards L, Tessier D, et al.NIDDM in the elderly. Diabetes Care. 1996 :19;1320-75.
12.
Nathan DM.Insulin treatment of noninsulindependent diabetes mellitus. In: Porte D Jr, Sherwin RS, eds. Ellenberg and Rifkin's Diabetes Mellitus. Connecticut : Appleton & Lange; 1997 :736.
13.
American Diabetes Association.Nutrition recommendations and principles for people with diabetes mellitus . Diabetes Care. 2000;23(suppl.1):S43-6.
14.
American Diabetes Association.Translation of the diabetes nutrition recommendations for health care institutions . Diabetes Care. 2000;23(suppl.1):S47-9.
15.
Mooradian AD, Osterweil D, Petrasek D, et al.Diabetes mellitus in elderly nursing home patients. JAm Geriatr Soc. 1988;36:391-6.
16.
Coulston AM, Mandelbaum D, Reaven GM.Dietary management of nursing home residents with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;51:67-71.
17.
Chandalia M, Garg A, Lutjohann D, et al.Beneficial effects of high dietary fiber intake in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1392-8.
18.
American Diabetes Association.Diabetes mellitus and exercise. Diabetes Care. 2000;23(suppl.1):S50-4.
Groop LC.Sulfonylureas in NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:737-53.
21.
Gerich JE.Oral hypoglycemic agents. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1231-45.
22.
Bressler R, Johnson DG. Pharmacological regulation of blood glucose levels in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med . 1997;157:836-48.
23.
Turner R, Cull C, Holman R. United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study 17: a 9-year update of a randomized, controlled trial on the effect of improved metabolic control on complications in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:136-45.
24.
Halter JB, Morrow LA.Use of sulfonylurea drugs in elderly patients . Diabetes Care. 1990;13(suppl 2):86-92.
25.
Seltzer HS.Drug-induced hypoglycemia: a review of 1418 cases. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1989;18:163-83.
26.
Shorr RI, Ray WA, Daugherty JR, et al.Individual sulphonylureas and serious hypoglycemia in older people. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44:751-5.
27.
Shorr RI, Ray WA, Daugherty JR, et al.Incidence and risk factors for severe hypoglycemia in older patients using insulin or sulfonylureas. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1681-6.
28.
Meneilly GS.Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes in the elderly. Clin Geriatric Med. 1999;15:239-53.
29.
Burge MR, Schmitz-Fiorentino K, Fischette C, et al.A prospective trial of risk factors for sulfonylurea-induced hypoglycemia in type 2 diabetes. JAMA. 1998 ;279:137-43.
30.
University Group Diabetes Program.A study of the effects of hypoglycemic agents on vascular complications in patients with adult-onset diabetes: mortality results. Diabetes . 1970;19(suppl. 2):785-830.
31.
Genuth S.Exogenous insulin administration and cardiovascular risk in non-insulin-dependent and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:104-9.
32.
Tessier D, Dawson K, Tetrault JP, et al.Glibenclamide versus gliclazide in type 2 diabetes in the elderly . Diabetic Med. 1994;11:974-80.
33.
Brodows RG.Benefits and risks with glyburide and glipizide in elderly NIDDM patients. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:75-80.
34.
Rosenstock J, Corrao PJ, Goldberg RB, et al.Diabetes control in the elderly: a randomized, comparative study of glyburide versus glipizide in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Clin Ther. 1993;15:1031-40.
35.
Stumvoll M, Nurjhan N, Perriello G, et al.Metabolic effects of metformin in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . N Engl J Med. 1995;333:550-4.
36.
Wildasin EM, Skaar DJ, Kirchain WR, et al.Metformin, a promising oral antihyperglycemic for the treatment of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Pharmacotherapy. 1997;17:62-73.
37.
DeFronzo RA, Goodman AM, and the Metformin Multicenter Study Group. Efficacy of metformin in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . N Engl J Med. 1995;333:541-9.
38.
Feinglos MN, Bethel MA.Oral agent therapy in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1999;22(suppl. 3):61C-64C.
39.
Campbell LK, White JR, Campbell RK.Acarbose: its role in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Ann Pharmacother. 1996;30:1255-62.
40.
Martin AE, Montgomery PA.Acarbose: an α-glucosidase inhibitor . Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 1996;53:2277-90.
41.
Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Hunt JA, et al.The efficacy of acarbose in the treatment of patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a multicenter controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:928-35.
42.
Segal P, Feig PU, Schernthaner G, et al.The efficacy and safety of miglitol therapy compared with glibenclamide in patients with NIDDM inadequately controlled by diet alone. Diabetes Care. 1997;20:687-91.
43.
Leonhardt W, Hanefeld M, Fischer S, et al.Efficacy of α-glucosidase inhibitors on lipids in NIDDM subjects with moderate hyperlipidaemia. Eur J Clin Invest. 1994;24(suppl. 3):45-9.
44.
Buse J, Hart K, Minasi L. The PROTECT study: final results of a large multicenter postmarketing study in patients with type 2 diabetes. Clin Ther. 1998;20:257-69.
45.
Serrano JS, Jimenez CM, Serrano MI et al. A possible interaction of potential clinical interest between digoxin and acarbose. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1996;60:589-92.
46.
Miura T, Ueno K, Tanaka K, et al.Impairment of absorption of digoxin by acarbose. J Clin Pharmacol. 1998;38:654-7.
47.
Morreale AP, Janetzky K.Probable interaction of warfarin and acarbose (letter. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 1997;54:1551-2.
48.
Fuhlendorff J, Rorsman P, Kofod H, et al.Stimulation of insulin release by repaglinide and glibenclamide involves both common and distinct processes. Diabetes. 1998;47:345-51.
49.
Cheatham WW.Repaglinide: a new oral blood glucose-lowering agent. Clin Diabetes. 1998;16:70-2.
50.
Marbury TC, Ruckle JL, Hatorp V, et al.Pharmacokinetics of repaglinide in subjects with renal impairment . Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2000;67:7-15.
51.
Hatrop V, Huang WC, Strange P.Repaglinide pharmacokinetics in healthy young adults and elderly subjects . Clin Ther. 1999;21:702-10.
52.
Marbury T, Huang WC, Strange P, et al.Repaglinide versus glyburide: a one-year comparison. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1999;43:155-66.
53.
Moses R, Slobodniuk R, Boyages S, et al.Effect of repaglinide addition to metformin monotherapy on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:119-24.
54.
Damsbo P, Marbury TC, Hatorp V, et al.Flexible prandial glucose regulation with repaglinide in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1999;45:31-9.
55.
Damsbo P, Clauson P, Marbury TC, et al.A double-blind randomized comparison of meal-related glycemic control by repaglinide and glyburide in well-controlled type 2 diabetic patients . Diabetes Care. 1999;22:789-94.
56.
Johnson MD, Campbell LK, Campbell RK. Troglitazone: review and assessment of its role in the treatment of patients with impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes mellitus. Ann Pharmacother. 1998;32:337-48.
57.
Sparano N, Seaton TL.Troglitazone in type II diabetes mellitus. Pharmacotherapy. 1998;18:539-48.
58.
Subramaniam S.The emerging role of thiazolidinediones in the treatment of diabetes-mellitus and related disorders. Clin Exp Hypertens. 1999;21:121-36.
59.
Ogihara T, Rakugi H, Ikegami H, et al.Enhancement of insulin sensitivity lowers blood pressure in diabetic hypertensives . Am J Hypertens. 1995;8:316-20.
60.
Forman LM, Simmons DA, Diamond RH. Hepatic failure in a patient taking rosiglitazone. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132:118-21.
61.
Freid J, Everitt D, Boscia J.Rosiglitazone and hepatic failure (letter. Ann Intern Med . 2000;132:164.
62.
Al-Salman J, Arjomand H, Kemp DG, et al.Hepatocellular injury in a patient receiving rosiglitazone: a case report. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132:121-4.
Yki-Jarvinen H, Kauppila M, Kuj ansuu E, et al. Comparison of insulin regimens in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1426-33.
66.
Saudek CD, Golden SH. Feasibility and outcomes of insulin therapy in elderly patients with diabetes mellitus . Drugs and Aging. 1999;14:375-85.
67.
Johnson JL, Wolf S, Kabadi UM.Efficacy of insulin and sulfonylurea combination therapy in type II diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Arch Intern Med . 1996;156:259-64.
68.
Daniel JR, Hagmeyer KO.Metformin and insulin : is there a role for combination therapy?Ann Pharmacother. 1997 ;31:474-80.
69.
American Diabetes Association.Standards of medical care for patients with diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2000;23(suppl. 1):S32-42.
70.
Haffner SM, Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, et al.Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:229-34.
71.
UK Prospective Diabetes Group.Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes : UKPDS 38. Br Med J. 1998;7160:703-13.
72.
American Diabetes Association.Aspirin therapy in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2000;23(suppl. 1):S61-2.
