In this article, I examine two visions of bilingual education that emerged during the Civil Rights Movement: race radicalism and liberal multiculturalism. I argue that although proponents of both visions believed that bilingual education was necessary for empowering language-minoritized populations, race radicalism conceptualized this empowerment as liberation from hegemonic Whiteness while liberal multiculturalism conceptualized this empowerment as assimilation into hegemonic Whiteness. I then examine the ways that the institutionalization of bilingual education erased race radicalism through reframing the debate around whether these programs should be subtractive or additive. I conclude by arguing that this dominant framing of bilingual education debates continues to reproduce hegemonic Whiteness in ways that marginalize language-minoritized students.
AndersonB. (1991). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. New York, NY: Verso.
2.
BakerC. (2011). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (5th ed.). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
3.
BakerC.HornbergerN. (2001). Jim Cummins: A biographical introduction. In BakerC.HornbergerN. (Eds.), An introductory reader to the writings of Jim Cummins (pp. 1-16). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
4.
BlantonC. (2004). The strange career of bilingual education in Texas, 1836-1981. College Station: Texas A & M University Press.
5.
BlantonC. (2006). George I. Sánchez, ideology, and Whiteness in the making of the Mexican civil rights movement, 1930-1960. The Journal of Southern History, 72, 569-604.
6.
BonfiglioT. (2002). Race and the rise of standard America. New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter.
7.
BrodkinK. (1998). How Jews became White folks and what that says about race in America. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
8.
ChristianD.HowardE.LoebM. (2000). Bilingualism for all: Two-way immersion education in the United States. Theory Into Practice, 39, 258-266.
9.
CollierV.ThomasW. (2002). The astounding effectivness of dual language education for all. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 2, 1-20.
10.
CrawfordJ. (2000). At war with diversity: US language policy in an age of anxiety. Tonawanda, NY: Multilingual Matters.
11.
CumminsJ. (2001). Empowering minority students: A framework for intervention. In BakerC.HornbergerN. (Eds.), An introductory reader to the writings of Jim Cummins (pp. 175-194). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. (Original work published 1986)
12.
CumminsJ. (2001). The influence of bilingualism on cognitive growth: A synthesis of research findings and explanatory hypotheses. In BakerC.HornbergerN. (Eds.), An introductory reader to the writings of Jim Cummins (pp. 26-55). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. (Original work published 1976)
13.
CumminsJ. (2001). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. In BakerC.HornbergerN. (Eds.), An introductory reader to the writings of Jim Cummins (pp. 63-95). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. (Original work published 1979)
14.
CumminsJ. (2001). Tests, achievement, and bilingual students. In BakerC.HornbergerN. (Eds.), An introductory reader to the writings of Jim Cummins (pp. 139-147). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. (Original work published 1982)
15.
Del ValleS. (1998). Bilingual education for Puerto Ricans in New York City: From hope to compromise. Harvard Educational Review, 68, 193-217.
16.
Enck-WanzerD. (Ed.). (2010). The Young Lords: A reader. New York: New York University Press.
17.
FergusonR. (2012). The reorder of things: The university and its pedagogy of minority difference. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
18.
FittsS. (2006). Reconstructing the status quo: Linguistic interaction in a dual-language school. Bilingual Education Research Journal, 30, 337-365.
19.
FloresN.RosaJ. (2015). Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and language diversity in education. Harvard Educational Review, 85, 149-171.
20.
FoucaultM. (2003). Society must be defended: Lectures at the Collége de France 1975-1976. New York, NY: Picador.
21.
GalS. (2006). Contradictions of standard language in Europe: Implications for the study of practices and publics. Social Anthropology, 14, 163-181.
22.
GreeneJ. P. (1997). A meta-analysis of the Rossell and Baker review of bilingual education research. Bilingual Research Journal, 21, 103-122.
23.
GrinbergJ.SaavedraR. (2000). The constitution of bilingual/ESL education as a disciplinary practice: Genealogical explorations. Review of Educational Research, 70, 419-441.
24.
HacsiT. A. (2002). Children as pawns: The politics of educational reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
25.
HublerE. (2002, November6). Bilingual-ed ban fails. Denver Post, E-01.
26.
HugheyM. (2012). White bound: Nationalists, antiracists, and the shared meaning of race. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
27.
HurdC. (2008). Cinco de mayo, normative Whiteness, and the marginalization of Mexican-descent students. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 39, 293-313.
28.
IgnatievN. (1995). How the Irish became White. New York, NY: Routledge.
29.
JeffriesJ. (2003). From gang-bangers to urban revolutionaries: The Young Lords of Chicago. Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, 96, 288-304.
30.
LambertW.TuckerG. (1972). Bilingual education of children: The St. Lambert experiment. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers.
31.
LeonardoZ.ZemblyasM. (2013). Whiteness as technology of affect: Implications for educational praxis. Equity & Excellence in Education, 46, 150-165.
32.
Lindholm-LearyK. (2000). Biliteracy for a global society: An idea book on dual language education. Washington, DC: George Washington University.
33.
MacSwanJ. (2000). The threshold hypothesis, semilingualism, and other contributions to a deficit view of linguistic minorities. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 22, 3-45.
34.
MarquezB.JenningsJ. (2000). Representation by other means: Mexican American and Puerto Rican social movement organizations. Political Science & Politics, 33, 541-546.
35.
MelamedJ. (2011). Represent and destroy: Rationalizing violence in the new racial capitalism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
36.
MelendezM. (2003). We took the streets: Fighting for Latino rights in the Young Lords. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
37.
NelsonJ. (2001). Abortions under community control: Feminism, nationalism, and the politics of reproduction among New York City’s Young Lords. Journal of Women’s Studies, 13, 157-180.
38.
NietoS. (2000). Puerto Rican students in U.S. schools: A brief history. In NietoS. (Ed.), Puerto Rican students in U.S. schools (pp. 5-38). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
39.
OmiM.WinantH. (1994). Racial formation in the United States from the 1960s to the 1990s. New York, NY: Routledge.
40.
OrelusP. (2013). Whitecentrism and linguoracism exposed: Towards the de-centering of Whiteness and decolonization of schools. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
41.
OtheguyR.SternN. (2011). On so-called Spanglish. International Journal of Bilingualism, 15, 85-100.
42.
PealE.LambertW. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs, 76, 1-23.
43.
PetrovicJ. (2005). The conservative restoration and neoliberal defenses of bilingual education. Language Policy, 4, 395-416.
44.
PetrovicJ. (2012). (Post)structural analyses of deficit notions of academic language: Discourse and dialect. In BrownG.IrbyB. J.Lara-AlecioR. (Eds.), Handbook of educational theories (pp. 417-426). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Press.
45.
ReyesL. (2006). The ASPIRA consent decree: A thirtieth anniversary retrospective of bilingual education in New York City. Harvard Educational Review, 76, 369-400.
46.
RicentoT. (2005). Problems with the “language as resource” discourse in the promotion of heritage languages in the U.S.A. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 9, 348-368.
47.
RoedigerD. (2006). Working toward Whiteness: How America’s immigrants became White. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books.
48.
RolstadK.MahoneyK.GlassG. V. (2005). The big picture: A meta-analysis of program effectiveness research on English language learners. Educational Policy, 19, 572-594.
49.
Roth-GordonJ. (2011). Discipline and disorder in the Whiteness of mock Spanish. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 21, 211-229.
50.
RuizR. (1984). Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal, 8(2), 15-34.
51.
SleeterC. (1995). An analysis of the critiques of multicultural education. In BanksJ.McGee BanksC. (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 81-94). New York, NY: Macmillan.
52.
SpenerD. (1988). Transitional bilingual education and the socialization of immigrants. Harvard Educational Review, 58, 133-154.
53.
SpringJ. (2009). Deculturalization and the struggle for equality: A brief history of the education of the dominated cultures in the United States. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
54.
StolerA. (1995). Race and the education of desire: Foucault’s history of sexuality and the colonial order of things. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
55.
TorresA.VelásquezJ. (1998). The Puerto Rican movement: Voices from the diaspora. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
56.
TrujilloA. (1996). In search of Aztlán: Movimiento ideology and the creation of a Chicano worldview through schooling. In LevinsonB.FoleyD.HollandD. (Eds.), The cultural production of the educated person: Critical ethnographies of schooling and local practice (pp. 119-152). Albany: State University of New York Press.
ValdésG. (1997). Dual language immersion programs: A cautionary note concerning the education of language-minority students. Harvard Educational Review, 67, 391-429.
59.
ValdésG.GonzálezS.López GarcíaD.MárquezP. (2003). Language ideology: The case of Spanish in departments of foreign languages. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 34, 3-26.
60.
VélezJ. (2000). Understanding Spanish-language maintenance in Puerto Rico: Political will meets the demographic imperative. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 142, 5-24.
61.
WhalenC. (2001). From Puerto Rico to Philadelphia: Puerto Rican workers and post-war economies. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
62.
WilliamsH. (2009). Self-taught: African American education in slavery and freedom. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
63.
WilligA. C. (1985). A meta-analysis of selected studies on the effectiveness of bilingual education. Review of Educational Research, 55, 269-317.
64.
WinantH. (2004). The new politics of race: Globalism, difference, justice. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
