The landscape of financing early childhood education in the U.S. is complex. Programs run the gamut from tuition-supported private centers to public programs supported by federal, state, or local funds. Different funding streams are poorly coordinated. The federal government funds several major targeted programs that are available only to specific subgroups of children. States have also tended to offer targeted programs, though in recent years several states have committed to serving all children at age 4. Types of finance models used in state preschool initiatives are examined in detail, and future opportunities to build a more cohesive system are explored.
Ackerman, D.J., Barnett, W.S., Hawkinson, L.E., Brown, K., & McGonigle, E.A. (2009). Providing preschool education for all 4-year-olds: Lessons from six state journeysPreschool Policy Brief (No. 18). New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research, Rutgers University.
2.
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, Pub. L. No. 111-5, 123 Stat. 181 (2009).
3.
Barnett, W.S., Brown, K.C., Finn-Stevenson, M., & Henrich, C. ( 2007). From visions to systems of universal prekindergarten . In J. L. Aber, S. J. Bishop-Josef, S. M. Jones, K. T. McLearn, & D. A. Phillips (Eds.), Child development and social policy: Knowledge for action (pp. 113-128). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association .
4.
Barnett, W.S., Brown, K.C., & Shore, R. ( 2004). The universal vs. targeted debate: Should the United States have preschool for all? (Preschool Policy Matters No. 6). New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research, Rutgers University.
5.
Barnett, W.S., Epstein, D.J., Friedman, A.H., Sansanelli, R.A., & Hustedt, J.T. ( 2009). The state of preschool 2009: State preschool yearbook . New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research, Rutgers University.
6.
Barnett, W.S., Friedman, A.H., Hustedt, J.T., & Stevenson Boyd, J. (2009). An overview of prekindergarten policy in the United States: Program governance, eligibility, standards, and finance. In R. C. Pianta & C. Howes (Eds.), The promise of pre-K (pp. 3-30). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.
7.
Barnett, W.S., & Masse, L. ( 2003). Funding issues for early childhood education and care programs. In D. Cryer & R. M. Clifford (Eds.), Early childhood education & care in the USA (pp. 137-165). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.
8.
Barnett, W.S., Robin, K.B., Hustedt, J.T., & Schulman, K.L. (2003). The state of preschool: 2003 state preschool yearbook. New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research, Rutgers University.
9.
Barnett, W.S., & Yarosz, D.J. ( 2007). Who goes to preschool and why does it matter? ( Preschool Policy Brief No. 15). New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research, Rutgers University.
10.
Belfield, C. ( 2008). Unpublished analyses of data from the 2005 National Household Education Survey.
11.
Besharov, D.J., Higney, C.A., & Myers, J.A. ( 2007). Federal and state child care and early education expenditures (1997-2005): Child care spending falls as pre-K spending rises . College Park, MD, and Washington, DC: Welfare Reform Academy, University of Maryland, and American Enterprise Institute .
12.
Bowman, B.T. ( 2003). Family engagement and support. In D. Cryer & R. M. Clifford (Eds.), Early childhood education & care in the USA (pp. 119-136). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.
13.
Cavalluzzo, L., Clinton, Y., Holian, L., Marr, L., & Taylor, L. ( 2009). West Virginia’s progress toward universal prekindergarten (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2009- No. 070). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Appalachia.
14.
Cobb, C. ( 2009). North Carolina’s More at Four prekindergarten program: A case study of funding versus quality and other issues in large-scale implementation . In R. C. Pianta & C. Howes (Eds.), The promise of pre-K (pp. 123-144). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.
15.
Cochran, M. ( 2009). Implementing large-scale prekindergarten initiatives: Lessons from New York. In R. C. Pianta & C. Howes (Eds.), The promise of pre-K (pp. 145-167). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.
16.
Conley, D.T. ( 2003). Who governs our schools? Changing roles and responsibilities . New York: Teachers College Press .
17.
Early Childhood Education Programs, West Virginia Code § 18-5-44 (2002 & Supp. 2008). Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Pub. L. No. 107-116, 20 U.S.C. 6301 et seq. (1965).
18.
Gayl, C.L., Young, M., & Patterson, K. ( 2009). New beginnings: Using federal Title I funds to support local pre-K efforts. Washington, DC: Pre-K Now.
19.
Gayl, C.L., Young, M., & Patterson, K. ( 2010). Tapping Title I: What every school administrator should know about Title I, pre-K and school reform. Washington, DC: Pre-K Now.
20.
Gormley, W.T., Jr., & Phillips, D. ( 2003). The effects of universal pre-K in Oklahoma: Research highlights and policy implications (CROCUS Working Paper No. 2). Washington, DC: Center for Research on Children in the United States, Georgetown University .
21.
Greenberg, M., & Schumacher, R. (2003). Financing universal pre-kindergarten: Possibilities and technical issues for states in using funds under the Child Care and Development Fund and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Block Grant. Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy.
22.
Hustedt, J.T., & Barnett, W.S. ( 2010). Early childhood education and care provision: Issues of access and program quality. In P. Peterson , E. Baker, & B. McGaw (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 110-119). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
23.
Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of 2007, Pub. L. No. 110-134, § 11, 121 Stat. 1411 (2007).
24.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997, Pub. L. No. 105-17, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq. (1997).
25.
Kamerman, S.B., & Gatenio-Gabel, S. (2007). Early childhood education and care in the United States: An overview of the current policy picture. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 1, 23-34.
26.
Matthews, H. ( 2009). Child care assistance in 2007. Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy.
27.
Matthews, H., & Ewen, D. ( 2010). FAQ: Using Title I of ESEA for early education. Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy.
28.
Mitchell, A. ( 2009). Models for financing state-supported prekindergarten programs. In R. C. Pianta & C. Howes (Eds.), The promise of pre-K (pp. 51-63). Baltimore: Brookes Publishing.
29.
Salzer, J. ( 2010, January 24). Perdue wants to tap lottery funds. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved February 12, 2010 , from http://www.ajc.com/news/perduewants-to-tap-281720.html
30.
Satkowski, C. ( 2009). The next step in systems-building: Early Childhood Advisory Councils and federal efforts to promote policy alignment in early childhood. Washington, DC: New America Foundation.
31.
Schechter, C., & Bye, B. ( 2007). Preliminary evidence for the impact of mixed-income preschools on low-income children’s language growth. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 137-146.
32.
Southern Education Foundation. (2008). Time to lead again: The promise of Georgia Pre-K. Atlanta : Author.
33.
State of Florida Agency for Workforce Innovation. (n.d.). Voluntary Prekindergarten Program: Frequently asked questions. Retrieved February 12, 2010, from http://www.floridajobs.org/earlylearning/VPK/FAQs.html
34.
Stone, D. ( 2008). Funding the future: States’ approaches to pre-K finance 2008 update. Washington, DC: Pre-K Now.
35.
Stullich, S., Eisner, E., & McCrary, J. ( 2007). National assessment of Title I final report: Vol. 1. Implementation. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
36.
Tax Policy Center. (2010). Quick facts: Child and Dependent Care Tax Credit. Retrieved February 15, 2010, from http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/press/quickfacts_CDCTC.cfm
37.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2008). Median household income (in 2008 inflation-adjusted dollars). Retrieved February 12, 2010, from http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GRTTable?_bm=y&-_box_head_nbr=R1901&-ds_name=ACS_2008_1YR_G00_&-_lang=en&-format=US-30&-CONTEXT=grt
38.
U.S. Department of Education. (2008). Fiscal year 2009 budget summary and background information. Retrieved May 3, 2010, from http://www.2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/budget09/summary/09summary.pdf
39.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start. (2008). Head Start program fact sheet. Retrieved January 29, 2010, from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ohs/about/fy2008.html
40.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Child Care Bureau. (2009). FFY 2007 CCDF data tables. Retrieved February 15, 2010, from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ccb/data/ccdf_data/07acf800/list.htm
41.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start. (n.d.). Head Start program performance standards and other regulations (45 CFR Parts 1301-1311). Retrieved February 9, 2010, from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ohs/legislation/index.html
42.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start, Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center. (2009). State advisory councils: Responses to frequently asked questions on ECLKC. Retrieved February 15, 2010, from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/Program%20Design%20and%20Management/sac/sac_response_to_faqs.html
43.
Winning Beginning New York. (2010). 2010 state budget update. Retrieved February 14, 2010, from http://www.winningbeginningny.org/documents/2010_state_budget_update.pdf
44.
Zigler, E., Gilliam, W.S., & Jones, S.M. ( 2006). A vision for universal preschool education. New York: Cambridge University Press.
