Abstract
This study explored the perceptions of female graduate assistants who worked in the NCAA division I athletic department regarding the barriers to their career success in the sport industry and their coping mechanisms through the lens of social cognitive career theory. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 female graduate assistants who were working in the athletic department of an NCAA Division I institution. The participants felt pressured to prove their value at work because of the perceived gender stereotypes against women working in sport and the belief in the glass ceiling for women working in a sport organization. To overcome these barriers, the participants adopted various behavioral and psychological coping mechanisms. The unique insights obtained from this study add to the body of literature on the career development of women in sport by filling the theoretical gap related to women who pursue a professional career in sport.
The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and college sport have achieved significant gender equity since the passage of the Title IX in 1972, including the growth of the number of female student-athletes in all the NCAA levels as well as the number of women working in intercollegiate athletics. The number of female student-athletes participating in collegiate sports has gradually increased since then and has peaked in 2022–2023 academic year, with almost 230,000 female student-athletes competing in the NCAA sports (NCAA.org, 2023). This is a considerable accomplishment, especially given that there were only about 30,000 female student-athletes nationwide in 1972, before the implementation of Title IX. The number of women working in intercollegiate athletics reached its peak in 2022, with women making up approximately 40% of NCAA full-time employees and 30% of NCAA conference commissioners that year (NCAA.org, 2023).
Nevertheless, research shows that female employees in college sport are significantly underrepresented in leadership roles, such as athletic director and head coach positions (Hartzell & Dixon, 2019). For example, women’s representation in coaching roles, especially for men’s sports, has been a subject of attention and concern. Women represented under 40% of NCAA coaches across all sports and nearly 15% of athletic directors were women across the NCAA institutions in 2021 (Lapchick, 2021). Women held only 10% of athletic director positions at Division I institutions, and 17% and 25% at a Division II and Division III schools, respectively. Overall, only 25% of head coaches and athletic directors were women in 2021 (Lapchick, 2021).
The participation of women in leadership and administrative roles within the NCAA has been a significant area of focus, particularly in light of efforts to achieve greater gender equity in collegiate sports. Previous research has shown that women encounter various barriers that hinder them from succeeding in their current positions or advancing to leadership positions (e.g., head coach, athletic director) within intercollegiate athletics. Some factors influencing women’s challenging experiences in intercollegiate athletics include, but are not limited to, gender-role stereotypes, lack of female mentors, old boy’s network, and work–family conflict. While these barriers have been widely discussed in the sport management literature, much of the research has focused on women who are already employed full-time in college athletic departments. There is limited research on how women aspiring to enter the field of sport perceive these identified barriers or other gender-oriented obstacles. To address this gap, the present study examined the views of female graduate assistants (FGAs) working in intercollegiate athletics about the obstacles to their career advancement and the strategies they use to overcome them, using the framework of social cognitive career theory (SCCT).
Graduate Assistants in Higher Education
In North American higher education, colleges and universities play a crucial role in providing students with a variety of opportunities and resources to prepare for their future careers (Park et al., 2023). Graduate Assistants (GAs), a subset of graduate students, gain professional experience and skills while working part-time within their departments. Flora (2007) defines GAs as full-time graduate students who provide valuable services in exchange for benefits like tuition waivers, health insurance, stipends, or other support. Though the terms and benefits of graduate assistantships vary by discipline, GAs generally receive financial support and hands-on experience in their specialized field. Their responsibilities are closely aligned with their career ambitions, helping them develop expertise relevant to their professional goals (Flora, 2007).
GAs are increasingly integral to athletic departments at universities, where they assist with a range of administrative and operational tasks. This support helps full-time staff while GAs gain hands-on experience in sport management and operations. The practice of employing GAs has gained popularity because it offers universities a cost-effective solution to staffing needs. Providing stipends and tuition waivers to GAs is more affordable than hiring full-time employees (Smith et al., 2017). Moreover, graduate assistantships provide valuable opportunities for female students aspiring to careers in college sports or the broader sport industry, helping to combat the male-dominated culture prevalent in many organizations (Smith et al., 2017). These assistantships offer practical experience, similar to internships, allowing students to develop the necessary skills for future careers. Additionally, GAs can gain insights into the gender-related challenges they may encounter, preparing them for leadership roles in the sport sector.
Literature Review
The sport management literature has consistently highlighted the structural barriers and challenges faced by women in intercollegiate athletics (Hancock & Hums, 2016; Hardin et al., 2022; Smith et al., 2019; Taylor & Hardin, 2016). Among these obstacles are factors such as gender role stereotypes, work-family conflicts, the prevalence of the “old boys’ network,” and the scarcity of female mentors, all of which significantly hinder women’s career progression in this field (Bower et al., 2015; Dixon & Bruening, 2007; Greenhill et al., 2009; Taylor & Hardin, 2016).
Gender Role Stereotypes
A particularly prominent challenge to women’s career advancement is the persistence of gender role stereotypes (Burton et al., 2011; Park & Williams, 2022; Smith et al., 2019). These stereotypes shape how similar behaviors are perceived differently in men and women. Women are often associated with communal traits such as nurturing, warmth, and gentleness, while men are linked to agentic traits like confidence, assertiveness, and leadership (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
As a result, women are frequently viewed as less suitable for leadership roles, leading to biased evaluations of their leadership potential regardless of their actual performance. This pattern is especially prevalent in male-dominated fields and high-level managerial roles (Schein, 2007). In the sport industry, for example, characteristics like athleticism and leadership are often seen as more naturally aligned with masculinity. Women pursuing leadership positions in sports face added challenges due to the perceived mismatch between traditional leadership traits and stereotypically feminine qualities (Burton et al., 2011; Madsen et al., 2017). College athletics reflects this broader issue, with studies identifying gender bias in leadership roles such as athletic directors, assistant coaches, marketing directors, and compliance coordinators (Bower et al., 2015; Burton et al., 2009, 2011; Madsen et al., 2017). These persistent stereotypes continue to hinder women’s advancement in the field.
Work–Family Conflict
Additionally, work–family conflict presents a unique challenge for women in intercollegiate athletics, as they are expected to adhere to societal gender norms related to family responsibilities. The demands of the athletic environment—including long work hours, extensive travel, weekend games, and high-performance expectations—often create strain between work and family roles for female employees in athletic departments (Dixon & Bruening, 2007; Smith et al., 2019). Women working in intercollegiate athletics also struggle to balance the demands of work and family roles due to the lack of family-friendly policies within athletic departments (Dabbs et al., 2016). According to Dabbs et al. (2016), deeply entrenched societal norms and non-family-supportive organizational cultures within intercollegiate athletics often exacerbate the burden of balancing family responsibilities for female athletes, coaches, and administrators. While progress has been made in understanding work–family conflict as a critical career barrier for women in intercollegiate athletics, research suggests that more strategies and solutions should be developed, such as organizational culture change, time management training, or childcare services (Dixon & Sagas, 2007).
Old Boys’ Network
Other research points to the “old boys’ network” as a contributing factor to the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions in intercollegiate athletics (Bower et al., 2015; Bower & Hums, 2013). The old boys’ network refers to a closed, exclusive network of men, often from elite institutions or backgrounds, who help one another advance in their careers, typically by offering mentorship, opportunities, or support based on shared histories or social status (Greenhill et al., 2009). In the context of intercollegiate athletics, the old boys’ network influences hiring decisions, particularly when athletic directors or search committees are making selections for high-level administrative roles. These decisions tend to favor individuals with similar backgrounds and experiences, which are disproportionately male (Hancock & Hums, 2016). As a result, female administrators and coaches in athletics find themselves excluded or marginalized from key decision-making circles due to the exclusivity of these networks (Bower et al., 2015). Oftentimes, key decisions like hiring or promotion are made based on informal connections within the old boys’ network rather than qualifications or performance. Consequently, women are likely to face substantial barriers to career progression, access to power and resources, and leadership opportunities. Thus, research suggests that the old boys’ network in intercollegiate athletics contributes to perpetuating inequalities for women working in sport and creates a mechanism that is difficult to change because it is embedded within a larger cultural framework that prioritizes male-dominated sport and leadership (Bower et al., 2015; Greenhill et al., 2009).
Lack of Female Mentors
The lack of female mentors remains a significant barrier to women’s professional advancement in intercollegiate athletics (Bower et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2016; Taylor & Hardin, 2016). Mentorship is critical for both personal and professional growth, but for women navigating the male-dominated culture of sports organizations, access to female mentors can be particularly vital for success and retention (Bower et al., 2015; Taylor & Hardin, 2016). While research consistently highlights the importance of mentorship in career development, persistent gender-related barriers, such as gender role stereotypes and work-family conflict, have led to the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions, further limiting the availability of female mentors (Bower et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2016). This scarcity creates a cyclical challenge, where the lack of role models hinders the advancement of aspiring women in the field.
Although many studies have examined the challenges women face once they have attained senior positions (e.g., athletic directors, senior woman administrators, coaches) is known about the perspectives of those still working toward entry into the field. In particular, the experiences of female graduate assistants (FGAs) in intercollegiate athletics remain underexplored. Investigating how FGAs perceive existing barriers and develop coping strategies could provide valuable insights into early career navigation within sport organizations. These insights may inform efforts to better support women preparing for full-time careers in intercollegiate athletics or other sectors of the sports industry. While some research has focused on female students in sport management or female student-athletes, FGAs face distinct challenges as they balance academic demands with professional responsibilities. Understanding their experiences could offer a more nuanced view of women’s career development in sports and highlight opportunities for targeted mentorship and institutional support at this formative career stage.
Social Cognitive Career Theory
This study adopts SCCT (Lent et al., 1994, 2000) to examine the perceived barriers and coping strategies of FGAs in intercollegiate athletics. SCCT is a well-established framework that explains career development through the dynamic interaction between personal and environmental factors. Unlike static models such as career construction theory, SCCT posits that individuals can adapt their personal factors in response to environmental changes. Personal factors in SCCT include characteristics such as sex, gender, education, race, and career interests, while environmental factors encompass perceived barriers and support systems, such as those found in intercollegiate athletics. Together, these elements shape career interests, inform career goals, and guide related behaviors. SCCT proposes a directional model: career interests influence goals, which then drive actions. However, it also emphasizes that environmental influences can outweigh personal interests in shaping career decisions.
Importantly, SCCT highlights that perceived barriers can significantly affect an individual’s career trajectory. Even with strong interests in a particular field, individuals may hesitate to act if they perceive substantial obstacles, thereby preventing their interests from developing into concrete plans. Thus, environmental factors can mediate the relationship between career interests and outcomes (Brown & Lent, 1996; Lent et al., 1994, 2000). This theoretical framework is especially relevant for FGAs navigating complex environments like intercollegiate athletics, where understanding the role of both personal attributes and external challenges is crucial to supporting their career development.
Lent et al. (2000) introduced coping efficacy, which refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to overcome perceived barriers. Those with high coping efficacy are more likely to manage challenges effectively and achieve career goals. As a core element of SCCT, coping efficacy supports proactive behaviors that help individuals confront obstacles, fostering career success. SCCT has been widely applied in sport management research, especially regarding the career development of college athletes and coaches in intercollegiate athletics. Studies have examined the barriers male and female athletes face when transitioning into coaching (Cunningham & Singer, 2010; Moran-Miller & Flores, 2011) and the challenges female assistant coaches encounter in pursuing head coaching roles (Cunningham et al., 2007). While these studies effectively use SCCT to analyze career development in collegiate sports, coping efficacy remains underexplored (Park & Williams, 2022). This study seeks to fill that gap by integrating perceived barriers and coping efficacy into a single framework. This approach offers a more comprehensive understanding of how FGAs in intercollegiate athletics navigate career challenges and identify opportunities for growth across various sports sectors.
Research Gap and Purpose of the Study
Sport management literature highlights numerous gender-related barriers faced by female employees in intercollegiate athletics across various roles (Bower et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2019; Taylor & Hardin, 2016). Although these experiences provide important context, much of this work focuses on women already in full-time athletic department positions, leaving limited insight into women pursuing careers in sport but not yet occupying full-time roles. Some research has examined the perceptions of female undergraduate sport management students (Harris et al., 2015; Morris et al., 2019; Sauder et al., 2018) and female college athletes (Park et al., 2023; Park & Williams, 2022; Taylor et al., 2022), primarily focusing on how educational and athletic experiences shape career planning. It is reasonable to expect that FGAs may share certain experiences with female employees or students described in this literature. However, FGAs occupy a distinct positional context within intercollegiate athletics, functioning simultaneously as students, part-time employees, and early-career professionals. Their roles are often short-term and involve ambiguous authority, situating them at a unique point of anticipatory career socialization within sport organizations.
Unlike full-time employees or traditional students, FGAs experience gender-related career barriers while actively preparing for professional entry within the same organizational environments in which they work. Examining their work experiences therefore provides critical insight into how perceived barriers and coping strategies develop during early career formation. Accordingly, this study aimed to explore the perceived barriers that FGAs face in pursuing careers in sport and how they navigate these challenges, guided by SCCT. The research was guided by the following questions: RQ1: What barriers do FGAs perceive in pursuing a career in the sport industry? RQ2: How do FGAs cope with these perceived barriers?
Method
Given the exploratory nature of this study, a qualitative research design using thematic analysis was employed to examine FGAs’ perceived career barriers and coping strategies in intercollegiate athletics. Thematic analysis was selected because it provides a flexible yet systematic approach to identifying patterns of meaning across participants’ accounts, particularly when research is guided by an established theoretical framework.
The analysis was informed by SCCT which sensitized the researchers to constructs such as perceived barriers, coping efficacy, outcome expectations, and contextual influences during data collection and interpretation. Rather than seeking to generate a new theory, the goal of the analysis was to develop a theoretically informed understanding of FGAs’ early-career experiences by organizing participants’ narratives into meaningful themes that reflect both individual and environmental dimensions of career development.
Participants
The target population for this study included FGAs who met two criteria: (a) they were second-year master’s students and (b) worked in NCAA Division I athletic departments. Second-year FGAs were chosen for their sufficient experience, enabling them to provide meaningful insights into career barriers and coping strategies. NCAA Division I was selected because it typically employs more graduate assistants in athletic roles than other divisions (Smith et al., 2017). To ensure a comprehensive understanding of career barriers, participants were recruited from diverse functional areas. No more than three FGAs were selected from the same department to avoid narrowing the study’s scope.
Participants Information
Data Collection
We conducted semi-structured, face-to-face interviews averaging 40 minutes, ranging from 30 to 55 minutes. Interviews are ideal for exploring understudied areas and understanding subjective social experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Using purposive and snowball sampling, we identified participants who met the recruitment criteria. After Institutional Review Board approval, we obtained email addresses of eight FGAs from Sport Management faculty at two institutions and sent official research invitations. Participants who agreed received consent forms and study details, including potential risks, benefits, the research process, interview questions, and the voluntary nature of participation. We built rapport through casual conversation, fostering a relaxed atmosphere that encouraged detailed and relevant responses (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
Interviews were scheduled at participants’ convenience to create a comfortable setting for sharing experiences. Afterward, we provided contact information for questions and informed participants about possible follow-ups for clarification or additional data. All interviews were audio-recorded and securely stored on encrypted personal devices to protect privacy. To maintain confidentiality, we assigned pseudonyms and excluded identifiable information in reports. Following each interview, participants suggested peer FGAs as potential participants. With their consent, we obtained these contacts and followed the same recruitment procedure.
Interview Protocol and Questionnaire
The purpose of the interviews was to explore FGAs’ experiences, perceptions, and insights regarding career barriers and coping strategies. This semi-structured interview protocol was designed to elicit in-depth responses and facilitate a conversational flow, allowing participants to express their views in a comfortable setting. The interview questions consisted of both standardized questions and the flexibility to follow up on the participants’ responses. The interview was divided into three main sections: (a) background information, (b) perceived barriers to careers in sport, and (c) coping strategies to address those barriers. The interview questions were developed theoretically based on SCCT and the relevant literature review.
The first set of questions covered the participants’ education, GA position, career interests, and career path. For example, the questions included: “Tell me a little bit about your educational background. What factor(s) led you to pursue graduate study and your current GA position?” and “Tell me about your career interests and specific career goals, if any. How did you become interested in your career path?” The second set of questions aimed to explore the participants’ experiences and perspectives on barriers to career success in sport organizations as women. These questions included: “What types of barriers and challenges have you experienced since working as a GA?” “Can you discuss any gender-specific barriers or challenges you have encountered working in intercollegiate athletics?” and “What are your thoughts on potential career barriers to achieving success in intercollegiate athletics or sport organizations for female employees?” The final set of questions prompted participants to discuss their coping strategies or efforts to overcome career-related barriers, including: “Regardless of whether the barriers are specific to women in sport, how would you approach overcoming any career barriers?” and “What strategies or approaches have you used to successfully cope with barriers, or which would you adopt in the future?”
While questions regarding barriers explicitly referenced gender-related challenges, the coping question was intentionally framed more broadly to capture how participants navigate career barriers generally. This approach recognized that coping efficacy may operate across both gender-specific and broader professional challenges, consistent with SCCT.
Data Analysis and Trustworthiness
Interview transcripts were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach to identify patterns related to perceived career barriers and coping strategies among female graduate assistants (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The researchers first engaged in data familiarization through repeated readings of the transcripts to gain an overall understanding of participants’ experiences (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Initial codes were then generated to capture meaningful segments of data related to gender-oriented barriers, coping strategies, and career development experiences.
Codes were compared across participants using constant comparison to identify similarities and differences in experiences and perspectives (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Through an iterative process, codes were organized into broader themes that represented shared patterns across the data set. Throughout analysis, SCCT informed interpretation by sensitizing the researchers to constructs such as perceived barriers, coping efficacy, outcome expectations, and contextual influences, while allowing themes to emerge inductively from participants’ narratives (Lent et al., 1994, 2000).
Several strategies were employed to enhance the trustworthiness of this qualitative study (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The researchers have academic training and professional expertise in sport management, with a particular focus on career development in intercollegiate athletics, and substantial experience conducting qualitative research in this context. Although neither researcher has direct experience working as a Division I graduate assistant, reflexive memoing was used throughout data collection and analysis to document analytic decisions and critically examine potential assumptions (Charmaz, 2006). Peer debriefing with qualitative scholars in sport management further strengthened credibility, and member checking was conducted by inviting participants to review preliminary themes. An audit trail documenting coding decisions and theme development was maintained to support dependability and confirmability (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
Findings
As a result of the 11 in-depth interviews with FGAs, we identified several key themes regarding the barriers to a successful career in sport and the coping strategies they utilized to deal with these barriers. The themes include gender stereotypes toward women in sport, belief in the glass ceiling, anticipated work-family conflict, and behavioral and psychological coping strategies.
Theme #1: Gender Stereotypes Toward Women Working in Sport
Most of the FGAs in the current study shared their insights into various prevailing gender stereotypes and misconceptions toward women working in the sport field. For example, Morgan pointed out the gender-role stereotypes that women are only suitable for certain roles: “In intercollegiate athletics, women are often cast in roles that focus on appearance, grace, or support, yet when we demand space to lead, we are often told to tone it down. It does not make sense at all.” Madison echoed the same point regarding the unparalleled standard for women, saying, “When a woman in athletics is assertive, she is seen as ‘bossy’ or ‘aggressive,’ but the same qualities in a man are seen as ‘strong leadership.’ That is just not fair.” On the other hand, Luna elaborated on how she felt frustrated with her opinions being ignored or undervalued based solely on her gender: It is frustrating when people assume women do not know sports just because of our gender. There is always that misconception. The worst part is that when your ideas are not taken seriously or overlooked, it is discouraging and negatively affects your actions in the future. But I figured I have to keep speaking up and showing my expertise, even if I am not supposed to do so.
Lastly, Berkeley also illustrated that as a woman working in sport, she feels more pressure to work hard and prove her value because she feels she is being evaluated or judged constantly: I hate to say this, but honestly, it is a lot of pressure. It feels like I am constantly being watched and judged because of the bias that ‘women do not know anything about sport.’ I also feel like I am not allowed to mess up, even once. It is exhausting because, as a woman, I have to prove myself more than the guys. It feels like everyone is waiting to say, ‘I told you so.’
Theme #2: Belief in the Glass Ceiling
Throughout the interviews, all of the FGAs expressed their belief that the glass ceiling still exists and is prevalent in the sport industry. The FGAs in this study agreed that the situation has been improving over the last few decades, but it remains a significant barrier for women to obtain more leadership roles, succeed in their current positions, or pursue a career in the professional field of sport. Allison stated, “The glass ceiling is definitely real. It is like there is this invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to the top, no matter how hard we work.” Similarly, Eloise discussed the prevalence of the glass ceiling phenomenon for women working in intercollegiate athletics: “I mean, the glass ceiling is still something we deal with every day. It is not as obvious as it once was, but you hear about it, and then you realize it is happening right in front of you.” Additionally, Clara expressed her frustration with the existence of the glass ceiling, stating, “I have noticed that the higher you go in the athletic department, the fewer women you see. It is frustrating, because it is not like we do not have the skills or experience. We just keep hitting that glass ceiling.” Lastly, Kimberly shared her opinion on the glass ceiling: In my opinion, unfortunately, the glass ceiling is still a major barrier for women in intercollegiate athletics. I know things have improved over time, but it is obvious that there are still limits to how far we can go. Women can make it to certain levels, but when you look at top leadership roles, there is still a huge gender gap.
Theme #3: Anticipated Work-Family Conflict
Another gender-specific career barrier that the FGAs mentioned was anticipated work-family conflict. Participants described concerns about future work–family balance challenges associated with long-term careers in intercollegiate athletics, rather than lived experiences of such conflict. Because all participants were single and without children, they had not directly encountered work–family conflict. Nonetheless, they perceived the non-family-friendly organizational culture within the athletic department as a significant barrier for women working in sport and anticipated facing similar challenges as they progressed in their careers. For example, Abigail stated, “There is a unique set of pressures for just women in athletics. It is not just about finding time. It is about overcoming the cultural expectations that women must always choose one over the other.” Similar to Abigail’s point, Allison discussed the dilemma of choosing between work and family: “The work-family conflict is a real challenge due to the late nights, weekend work, and long-distance travel. It feels like I will have to choose between being successful in my career or being present at home.” Eloise also stated, “It is hard to escape the constant tension between work and family. I can see the (female) seniors struggling with their family roles and the demanding work schedules, which makes me question if I can have it all.” Lastly, Evelyn added, “Women have to sacrifice their personal lives for their careers because of the structure and culture of the (sport) profession. This does not apply to men. To be equal, women in this field need more support to thrive in both areas.”
Theme #4: Behavioral Coping Strategies
The second research question sought to uncover various coping strategies the FGAs utilized to overcome gender-oriented barriers and challenges. First, the FGAs appeared to utilize various behavioral coping strategies, including strong work ethics, active networking, and seeking support from women. In terms of strong work ethics, Berkeley shared her strategy to overcome the perceived barriers by working harder to prove her capabilities at work. She stated: I feel like I have to go above and beyond just to prove myself. There is always this expectation that women are not as capable, so I work harder to show that I can handle the same responsibilities as anyone else. It is tiring, but it is the only way to fight against gender biases.
Echoing Berkeley’s strong work ethic, Abigail talked about her intention to do more than her male counterparts: As a woman in intercollegiate athletics, I have to work twice as hard to prove that I can do what men can do. There is this constant pressure to show that I am just as capable as or more capable than my male counterparts. It is very exhausting, but it is the right way to get noticed and respected.
There are other FGAs who discussed their efforts to enter the old boys’ network and become one of “them.” For example, Morgan said, “If you are a woman trying to be as successful as men in college athletics, you have to get in with the ‘boys.’ You have to make them see you as a valuable ally and teammate.” Eloise also touched on how and why she is active in networking: Networking in sports is not just about meeting people. It is about making the right connections. As a woman in sports, it is crucial to build a solid network, especially with those who hold the power. It can be intimidating, but it is necessary if you want to really succeed in your position.
On the other hand, Clara believed that it is useful to get help from senior female employees who have gone through the similar hardship previously. She stated: I always seek out advice from senior women in athletics because they’ve faced what I’m facing and can tell me what works and what doesn’t. Having a female mentor is a huge help too because I can get real and relevant advice tailed to the struggles I personally deal with in male-dominated spaces.
Overall, the FGAs in this study emphasized the importance of being proactive in utilizing available networks and personal connections to overcome potential gender-related challenges in the sport context.
Theme #5: Psychological Coping Strategies
Another coping mechanism the FGAs utilized was psychological in nature. Many FGAs in this study believed that being confident in their abilities and in what they had to work on was crucial to overcoming the gender-oriented challenges in sport. For example, Berkeley spoke about the importance of confidence in breaking the prevalent gender biases: “In a male-dominated field like intercollegiate athletics, confidence is everything. I have learned that if I trust in my abilities and stand firm in who I am, I can break through the biases. It is not always easy though.” Aligning with Berkeley’s point, Donna also emphasized the importance of being confident: I am typically very confident in what I am doing. But if I am not very confident and I need to ask questions, I have to kind of show that I am willing to not only learn but also to adapt, just because there are so many different rules and tricks you need to know, especially at an early stage of your career. I think it helps you better connect with your superiors and peers, because you run into issues, you are comfortable asking questions and they can assist you as opposed to you being off by yourself.
Abigail shared her own experience, explaining that she tries to be honest about the areas where she needs more help and to maintain a strong mentality. She said, “It is okay not to know everything and to be honest about areas where I can grow. It is also key to be mentally ready for any criticism as a woman in sport. You cannot let others’ prejudgment break you down.” Luna also spoke about how important it is not to be afraid of asking questions and being straightforward about your own weaknesses (and strengths). She stated: Being a female GA in sports and the only female staff in the marketing, I have realized that asking for help when I need it and acknowledging my own flaws is crucial. It is not a weakness. I worked with the gymnastic team once and said I had no experience or expertise in advance. We should not be shy about something we do not know.
Taken together, the identified themes suggest that FGAs’ coping strategies are not independent of the barriers they encounter but rather emerge in response to perceived structural and interpersonal constraints within intercollegiate athletics. Consistent with SCCT, participants described navigating gendered organizational cultures by engaging in coping behaviors that reflect their perceived efficacy and anticipated career outcomes. These findings illustrate how environmental barriers shape FGAs’ appraisal of career opportunities and inform the strategies they use to persist, adapt, or reconsider their career trajectories during an early career stage.
Discussion
Conceptual Model
Gender-Oriented Stereotypes Toward Women Working in Sport
The FGAs in this study shared gendered experiences shaped by prevailing gender-role stereotypes and misconceptions in intercollegiate athletics. This gender-specific career barrier aligns with prior studies showing that full-time female employees in athletic departments often face significant obstacles to career advancement (Bower et al., 2015; Hancock & Hums, 2016; Smith et al., 2019; Taylor & Hardin, 2016). Consistent with broader research on women in sport, gender-based stereotypes and discrimination remain pervasive in sports organizations. Women early in their careers in the sport industry often feel compelled to continually prove their knowledge and competence due to constant scrutiny and evaluation (Bower et al., 2015; Madsen et al., 2017; Taylor & Hardin, 2016). Notably, several FGAs expressed that their voices and opinions were unheard or undervalued within male-dominated teams, reinforcing enduring gender biases such as assumptions that women are less knowledgeable about sport or less suited for leadership roles (Burton et al., 2009; Hardin et al., 2022; Taylor & Hardin, 2016).
Another significant finding was that all FGAs believed the glass ceiling in sport organizations continues to exist, albeit in more covert forms. Although participants acknowledged gradual improvement and increased representation of women in leadership, many expressed limited optimism about advancing to upper managerial positions. While prior research shows that other female groups (e.g., female sport management students, female student-athletes) often adopt resilient and positive approaches toward such barriers (Harris et al., 2015; Park & Williams, 2022), the persistence of the glass ceiling may undermine long-term gender equity and organizational diversity in sport.
Although several barriers identified in this study resemble those reported among women in other male-dominated fields (e.g., STEM), the present findings extend this literature by situating these barriers within the distinct structural and cultural context of intercollegiate athletics. Division I athletic departments operate within highly visible, performance-driven environments characterized by hierarchical leadership structures and entrenched gender norms (Hancock & Hums, 2016). FGAs encounter these dynamics while occupying temporary, developmental roles that function simultaneously as training and employment positions, reflecting processes of anticipatory career socialization (Smith et al., 2017). From a SCCT perspective (Lent et al., 1994), this dual positioning shapes how barriers are appraised and navigated, underscoring the role of coping efficacy and outcome expectations during early career formation. Thus, the study contributes context-specific insight into how gendered barriers operate within sport organizations and influence early-career decision-making processes.
Work–Family Conflict
The present study adds to the literature on work–family conflict in sport organizations by focusing on young women aspiring to enter the field. While past research highlights the challenges faced by women in senior intercollegiate athletics roles (e.g., Bruening & Dixon, 2007; Dabbs et al., 2016; Dixon & Bruening, 2007; Smith et al., 2019), this study shifts the lens to prospective female employees (FGAs) who, though not yet experiencing family-related conflict, anticipate it as a future career barrier. This perspective sheds new light on how early-career women perceive the future implications of work–family conflict as a potential barrier to career advancement in sports organizations.
Findings show that FGAs perceive work–family conflict as a significant obstacle, despite lacking direct experience with it. Their concerns reflect the influence of organizational culture and the observed struggles of senior women in their departments. This anticipatory outlook suggests that work–family conflict operates not only as a real barrier but also as a perceived one, shaping early career expectations and potentially deterring women from pursuing advancement in sports organizations. These perceptions highlight how second-hand experiences and workplace norms influence young women’s career ambitions, reinforcing the need for structural and cultural changes to support women across all career stages.
Furthermore, while this study supports previous findings that identify work–family conflict as a gendered barrier in sport (e.g., Bower et al., 2015; Dabbs et al., 2016), it also reveals a gap in coping strategies. Although FGAs acknowledged anticipated work-family conflict as a significant challenge, they struggled to articulate effective ways to manage it. This absence of articulated coping strategies likely reflects the specific demographic and professional characteristics of the FGA sample. All participants were 21 years old, single, and without children, situating them at an early stage of personal and professional development where work–family challenges may be anticipated but not yet experienced directly. In contrast, research on women with caregiving responsibilities in intercollegiate athletics has identified coping mechanisms such as self-awareness, strategic organization and time management, reliance on support networks, flexible scheduling, role prioritization, and engagement with family-friendly policies and organizational cultures to manage work–family conflict (Bruening & Dixon, 2007; Mazerolle & Barrett, 2018). From a SCCT perspective, the limited discussion of work–family coping may reflect lack of lived exposure to these stressors rather than diminished coping efficacy. At the same time, the systemic and ingrained nature of work–family conflict within sport organizational culture suggests that it may not be fully addressable through individual coping strategies alone. As an environmental barrier, anticipated work-family conflict likely cannot be resolved through individual coping strategies alone. From the lens of SCCT, such environmental challenges can negatively impact career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and aspirations (Lent et al., 2000; Park & Williams, 2022). Despite demonstrating coping efficacy, FGAs are unlikely to overcome this uncontrollable external barrier without broader institutional change.
It is not surprising that FGAs view work-family conflict as a major challenge, difficult to manage without institutional support or structural changes. Prior research shows that interventions like culture change, time management training, and childcare services can reduce its negative impact on women’s career advancement in sport organizations (Dixon & Sagas, 2007). While FGAs in our study did not propose solutions, their perceptions underscore the need for a supportive work environment to ease this barrier. With growing demands on women in the sport industry, targeted solutions or policies that promote work-family balance are crucial, as this issue significantly affects retention and career growth. Thus, further research into the views of prospective female employees on work-family conflict is essential to understand their needs and guide future initiatives.
Coping With the Gender-Oriented Barriers
The findings of this study highlight two primary coping strategies employed by FGAs in athletic departments to overcome gender-related barriers in the workplace: behavioral and psychological strategies. These strategies, specifically active networking and working harder to prove their abilities, demonstrate how women adapt to male-dominated organizational cultures. This reflects a growing awareness of the need for strategic adjustments in a traditionally male space.
One key finding was the FGAs’ use of active networking, particularly their efforts to break into the traditionally male-dominated “old boys’ network.” This represents a shift from past strategies where women focused on female-focused networks or sought mentorship from other women. Today, however, many young female professionals are actively seeking access to vital resources, career information, and opportunities within male-dominated networks. This aligns with studies suggesting that women now recognize the importance of integrating into male-dominated spaces for career mobility (Bower & Hums, 2013; Hancock & Hums, 2016). Participants in this study did not view the “old boys’ network” as an obstacle but as a space to infiltrate and use for career advancement, signaling a shift toward proactive career strategies.
Alongside networking with male-dominated groups, participants also focused on building relationships with female employees in senior administrative roles. This approach proved effective, as female mentors provided insights tailored to the unique challenges faced by women in entry-level positions. This finding is supported by earlier research (Bower et al., 2015; Hancock & Hums, 2016; Park & Williams, 2022; Taylor & Hardin, 2016), which shows the importance of female mentors for women in male-dominated industries. A recent study by McLeod et al. (2025) also highlights the positive role of having more women in sports organizations. Despite male-dominated structures, the strategies employed by the FGAs reflect a positive shift in mindset. These women were not passive recipients of gendered barriers but were actively reshaping their strategies and networks to overcome obstacles. This proactive engagement, combined with peer-mentoring systems, offers hope for increasing career mobility in collegiate athletics. These findings reinforce the idea that mentoring and peer support networks are vital resources for women navigating organizational barriers (Greenhill et al., 2009).
Another key behavioral strategy identified was the tendency to “work harder” to prove competence. This reflects findings from earlier research, which shows that women often feel the need to outperform their male counterparts to gain recognition in male-dominated sectors (Bower & Hums, 2013; Hardin et al., 2022; Park & Williams, 2022). The FGAs in this study demonstrated strong work ethics and performance that exceeded expectations, helping them navigate a gendered workplace by aligning their efforts with organizational expectations while pushing beyond those limits to make their contributions visible.
Psychologically, confidence and resilience were found to be critical in overcoming barriers. This aligns with SCCT, which suggests that individuals with high coping efficacy—belief in their ability to overcome challenges—are more likely to succeed despite obstacles. The FGAs in this study demonstrated resilience and a willingness to engage with gendered barriers directly, reinforcing the idea that women can overcome obstacles when they believe in their ability to succeed.
Taken together, these findings underscore that although gender-related barriers may share cross-industry similarities, their manifestation and career implications are shaped by the structural features of sport organizations and the developmental positioning of FGAs within those contexts. Moreover, the coping strategies employed by FGAs reflect context-specific adaptations to these organizational dynamics during early career formation. From a theoretical standpoint, this study extends SCCT by illustrating how its processes operate prior to full-time career entry. The findings show that organizational culture and perceived barriers shape not only coping behaviors and efficacy beliefs but also anticipated outcome expectations about long-term career sustainability. Notably, anticipated work–family conflict functioned as a negative outcome expectation despite the absence of lived experience, suggesting that career cognitions develop through observation and early professional socialization. Together, these findings refine SCCT by demonstrating how barriers, outcome expectations, and efficacy beliefs interact during early-career development within sport organizations.
Practical Implications
The findings of this study offer several implications for career practitioners working with aspiring women in sport. First, career counselors and graduate program coordinators should recognize that early-career women may anticipate gender-related barriers—such as stereotypes and work–family conflict—even before directly experiencing them. Structured discussions around coping efficacy, anticipatory career socialization, and realistic outcome expectations may help FGAs navigate perceived constraints while maintaining career aspirations. Second, mentorship initiatives—particularly those that facilitate access to both female leaders and influential male networks—may strengthen professional self-efficacy and expand career opportunities (Bower et al., 2015; Hancock & Hums, 2016). Finally, athletic department administrators should consider how organizational climate, visible female leadership, and family-supportive policies shape early-career women’s career development. Proactive institutional efforts to cultivate inclusive environments may mitigate perceived barriers and support long-term retention of women in sport organizations (Dixon & Sagas, 2007; Smith et al., 2019).
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
This study yielded meaningful insights from FGAs’ experiences, but several limitations and recommendations for future research remain. First, the focus on NCAA Division I reflects its unique features, such as higher competitiveness and longer work hours, which may limit the applicability of findings to other divisions. Future research should include all three NCAA divisions to identify broader themes on gender-related career barriers and coping strategies among FGAs across different athletic department settings.
Second, while this study highlights key themes about perceived career barriers and coping strategies among FGAs—female part-time employees aspiring to full-time sports careers—it lacks perspectives from other non-senior-level female employees in intercollegiate athletics. Prior research has mainly focused on senior female leaders’ experiences with gender stereotypes and challenges (Hancock & Hums, 2016; Hardin et al., 2022; Smith et al., 2019), but entry-level female employees remain underexplored. Future studies should examine how junior female employees navigate gender-specific career barriers today. Such research would offer valuable insights and guidance for future female professionals, including FGAs and female students pursuing sport management or related fields (Park & Williams, 2022). Expanding the scope to diverse roles and divisions could enhance understanding of the evolving challenges and resilience strategies of women in collegiate athletics.
Third, anticipated work–family conflict was identified as a critical barrier to career success. While it emerged as a major theme, participants lacked clearly articulated coping strategies for navigating this challenge in their anticipated transition to full-time careers in the sport industry. Future research should more deeply investigate how FGAs conceptualize work–family conflict and explore potential organizational or policy-based supports that may mitigate its impact.
Finally, a theoretical limitation of this study relates to the examination of contextual affordances within SCCT. Although SCCT emphasizes both environmental barriers and contextual supports in shaping career self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals (Lent et al., 1994, 2000), the present study primarily focused on perceived barriers and coping responses. Contextual supports—such as organizational climate, mentorship structures, and policies promoting work–family balance—were not systematically explored. As a result, the findings provide a more comprehensive understanding of perceived constraints than of enabling environmental factors. Future research should more explicitly examine how organizational supports and climate conditions interact with barriers to influence FGAs’ career development processes.
Additionally, a methodological limitation relates to the interview protocol, which explicitly asked participants about perceived career barriers. Framing questions around “barriers” may have shaped responses by directing attention toward challenges rather than allowing themes to emerge entirely inductively. Although follow-up prompts were open-ended and encouraged elaboration, future research may benefit from using broader questions about career experiences to examine whether similar themes emerge without explicit barrier framing.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the graduate assistants who generously shared their time and experiences for this study.
Ethical Considerations
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Illinois State University.
Consent to Participate
All participants provided written informed consent prior to participation.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by a University Research Grant from the College of Applied Science and Technology at Illinois State University.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
Due to confidentiality agreements and the sensitive nature of qualitative data, transcripts and interview recordings are not publicly available. Anonymized excerpts may be shared upon reasonable request to the corresponding author.