Abstract
Vocational identity has consistently been linked to occupational well-being, yet its role among adults with ADHD remains unclear. This study examined the benefits of a clear vocational identity to job satisfaction, work amotivation, and income in context of ADHD. Participants were 100 full-time employees with ADHD (51% male; ages 19–30). Controlling for age, sex, and medication status, path analyses revealed a clear vocational identity was associated with higher levels of job satisfaction and protected against work amotivation. ADHD symptoms and executive function problems (time management, organization, motivation) were associated with lower levels of a clear vocational identity. Regression analyses further revealed that a clear vocational identity moderated the adverse effects of ADHD symptoms and executive function problems on job satisfaction and work motivation. Altogether, our findings provide initial evidence that a clear vocational identity may be protective and a promising intervention target for occupational functioning among adults with ADHD.
Keywords
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a chronic neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity (APA, 2022) as well as executive function deficits (Henning et al., 2024; Kofler et al., 2019; Skogli et al., 2022). ADHD is one of the most common mental health disorders, affecting approximately three to six percent of adults worldwide (Song et al., 2021), with persisting symptoms associated with significant executive functioning challenges (Roselló et al., 2020). Within the United States alone, total illness-related cost among adults with ADHD is estimated at $122.8 billion, with more than half those costs related to occupational impairment (Schein et al., 2022). Beyond financial repercussions, individuals with ADHD often experience poor job satisfaction and diminished motivation at work (Gordon & Fabiano, 2019). However, significant variability exists among individuals with ADHD, with some reporting higher levels of well-being and success in the workplace (Chan & Langberg, 2024). Thus, theory-driven research is needed to understand this heterogeneity and to identify modifiable protective mechanisms that support positive work outcomes in context of ADHD.
Vocational Identity Theory
Vocational identity theory serves as a valuable framework for interpreting differences in work outcomes among individuals with ADHD. Vocational identity refers to the degree of clarity, stability, and confidence individuals hold regarding their career goals, values, and skillsets, as well as the extent to which these elements are integrated into a coherent sense of self (Crocetti et al., 2024; Nauta, 2010). For example, an individual with a clear vocational identity understands their job requirements, is confident in their abilities to succeed in their chosen occupation, and feels their work is a good match to their interests and skillsets. Since Holland (1985) published his theory, almost five decades of research indicates a clear vocational identity is associated with higher levels of occupational well-being, engagement, motivation, and life satisfaction (Hirschi & Herrmann, 2012; Skorikov & Vondracek, 2007). Moreover, recent reviews suggest that vocational identity can be strengthened through targeted interventions (Crocetti et al., 2024; Crocetti et al., 2025), including vocational education and training programs (e.g., Klotz et al., 2014).
Nonetheless, while a clear vocational identity is associated with positive outcomes and holds promise as an intervention target in the general population, it may not operate similarly for individuals with ADHD. For example, from the perspective of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT; Brown & Lent, 2023), vocational development is shaped by self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goal-directed behaviors, all of which are influenced by prior learning experiences and environmental supports. Within this framework, ADHD-related executive function challenges and symptom management difficulties may undermine the development of a stable vocational identity by reducing confidence in career tasks, limiting persistence in exploring career options, and impeding skill acquisition. Indeed, emerging evidence suggests that higher levels of executive dysfunction are associated with lower well-being, such as burnout, emotional exhaustion, and cognitive fatigue (Turjeman-Levi et al., 2024), potentially undermining an individual’s work-related self-concept. Given these associations, it is crucial to examine the unique impact of ADHD on vocational identity and its implications for occupational outcomes.
Vocational Identity and ADHD
To our knowledge, there are only two studies of vocational identity in individuals with ADHD, neither of which included working-age adults. Dipeolu et al. (2013) found that high school students with ADHD were more likely than their non-ADHD peers to report lower levels of readiness and higher levels of anxiety when engaging in career planning processes. Moreover, among students with ADHD, these negative self-perceptions regarding career readiness were significantly associated with less clearly defined vocational identities. In another study, Levanon-Erez et al. (2016) found that adolescents with ADHD reported vocational identities that were significantly less clear than those of peers without ADHD. Qualitative interviews further revealed that histories of academic difficulties were associated with low vocational identities (Levanon-Erez et al., 2016). In both studies, participants were adolescents, highlighting the need to evaluate vocational identity among working adults with ADHD, who may be better able to reflect on the match between their interests, skills, and chosen profession. Moreover, neither study examined the impact of ADHD symptom severity or executive functioning difficulties on vocational identity and occupational outcomes. These challenges may be particularly difficult to address in adulthood, given the longstanding impairments that begin in childhood and are inherent to an ADHD diagnosis (APA, 2022).
Altogether, emerging evidence suggests that individuals with ADHD have less developed vocational identities than their peers, yet how the diagnosis shapes this relationship and its outcomes requires further investigation. For instance, the aforementioned studies indicate that individuals with ADHD report more anxiety and lower levels of readiness in career planning, as well as less defined vocational identities than their non-ADHD peers (Dipeolu et al., 2013; Levanon-Erez et al., 2016). Moreover, not only is ADHD symptom severity but also executive function problems associated with different interpersonal, task performance, and occupational attainment in the workplace (Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Chan & Langberg, 2024; Gordon & Fabiano, 2019). Thus, individuals with ADHD present to the workplace with a range of strengths and weaknesses, which may differentially impact their development of a vocational identity and its benefits to occupational functioning.
To that point, in a recent study, Chan and Langberg (2024) examined the differential effects of ADHD symptoms and core executive function problems associated with ADHD (i.e., difficulties with time management, organization, and motivation) on income, disciplinary action, boredom, and overall performance at work. The authors found that hyperactivity/impulsivity and time-management problems were the most consistent predictors of occupational outcomes. Specifically, higher levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity and time-management problems were associated with lower incomes as well as less engagement and satisfaction with relationships at work. Interestingly, high levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity, but not inattention, were associated with negative occupational outcomes. Further, difficulties with time management and motivation, but not with organization, were associated with interpersonal and task-related difficulties at work. Collectively, this work indicates that dimensions of ADHD symptoms and core executive dysfunctions impact different areas of occupational functioning, but their relations to vocational identity have yet to be studied.
Current Study
The clarity of one’s vocational identity has repeatedly been associated with higher levels of occupational well-being, including job satisfaction, motivation, and engagement (Hirschi & Herrmann, 2012; Skorikov & Vondracek, 2007). However, whether individuals with ADHD experience the benefits of a clear vocational identity to occupational functioning remains unknown. Further, given that ADHD symptom severity and executive function impairments predict workplace difficulties (Chan & Langberg, 2024), it is important to understand if vocational identity attenuates those associations. To that end, the present study has three primary aims. First, we examine the unique associations of a clearer vocational identity to income, job satisfaction, and amotivation at work. Next, we evaluate whether and to what extent dimensions of ADHD symptoms (inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity) and executive dysfunction (time management, organization, motivation) predict a clear vocational identity over and above each other. Finally, we investigate vocational identity as a moderator for the relation between ADHD symptoms and executive dysfunction to occupational outcomes. Based on the above reviewed literature, we predict a clearer vocational identity will predict higher incomes and job satisfaction and lower levels of work amotivation, as well as protect against the occupational risks conferred by ADHD symptoms and executive dysfunction. However, the benefits of a clear vocational identity to positive work outcomes will be greater for individuals with fewer ADHD symptoms as well as executive function problems.
Methods
Participants
This study was approved by the Rutgers University Institutional Review Board. Participants (N = 100; 51% male) were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk; https://www.mturk.com) in the spring and summer of 2024 to complete an online survey on occupational functioning for individuals ages 19–30 with ADHD (M = 26.61, SD = 2.28). Participant characteristics for the current sample included 45% White/Non-Hispanic, 35% Black/African American, 18% White/Hispanic, and 2% Asian. Participant education included 1.9% completed high school, 5.6% some college/associate degree, 72.2% completed college, and 20.3% completed a graduate degree. Participants’ reported income ranged from $20,000 to $120,000 (M = 50,000 or less). Nineteen participants (19%) reported taking ADHD medications.
After completing consent, participants were administered a brief eligibility screening survey. Eligible participants were compensated $25 for completing surveys on their ADHD symptoms and executive functioning as well as factors that impact their work outcomes, which took approximately 50 minutes to complete. Participants were required to report receiving a diagnosis of ADHD. Participants additionally had to meet full Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR; APA, 2022) criteria for ADHD inattentive or combined presentations, which are the most common presentations in adulthood (Rivas-Vazquez et al., 2023), using the Barkley Adult ADHD Rating Scale–IV (BAARS; Barkley, 2011a). The BAARS was used as it assesses the same 9 inattention and 9 hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms in childhood and adulthood as the DSM-5-TR diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Specifically, on the eligibility screen, participants had to endorse at least five current and six childhood symptoms on the BAARS to meet combined or inattentive presentation. Presentations characterized solely by hyperactivity/impulsivity were excluded due to their low base rates in adults (3–7%; Gibbins et al., 2010; Wilens et al., 2009), which may result in potential misdiagnosis that we could not verify. Within the sample, 90% met criteria for the combined presentation and 10% for the inattentive presentation.
In addition, participants had to report working at least 20 hours per week. Many individuals with ADHD struggle to find a 40-hour per week job, thus including participants who work 20 hours a week and above provides a more representative sample. Study exclusion criteria included (a) diagnoses of autism spectrum, bipolar, and schizophrenia disorder and/or (b) current enrollment in higher education (defined as currently completing more than one college course). These criterions were selected, given the study’s focus on understanding occupational functioning, and because individuals engaged in college and the workforce will likely have different needs and have access to a wider range of free/low-cost resources.
Data Quality and Validity Procedures
The study followed the highest level of methodological recommendations for MTurk surveys to ensure the accuracy of data (Berinsky et al., 2012; Goodman et al., 2013; Paolacci et al., 2010; Peer et al., 2017). Specifically, the study was restricted to workers in the United States who had at least a 95% approval rating and completed 100 or more approved Human Intelligence Tasks (HITS; tasks/surveys on MTurk). Further, to evaluate within person validity of responses, demographic variables (e.g., ADHD diagnostic status and ethnicity) were assessed multiple times within the survey with slight modifications (Burnette et al., 2022). In addition, the study design intentionally included open-ended responses to identify nonsensical or irrelevant responses (Burnette et al., 2022), and these participants were removed. During data collection, participants who attempted to complete the eligibility survey/HIT more than once were blocked from re-attempting the survey. Lastly, post-data collection, study completion time was assessed for each participant and had to be within the expected study range of 45 minutes to 1 hour. Seventy-four participants were screened out based on our exclusion criteria and/or the above-described data quality and validity procedures. Of the 74 participants excluded, the majority (n = 63) were removed because they did not meet our eligibility criteria (e.g., insufficient ADHD symptoms or endorsed an exclusionary diagnosis).
Measures
ADHD Symptoms
The Barkley Adult ADHD Rating Scale-IV (BAARS-IV; Barkley, 2011a) short form is a self-report measure used for initial screening. It includes a total of 18 items, forming the inattention and hyperactivity subscales, with 9 items in each that correspond to the DSM-5-TR criteria. Sample items include “Easily distracted by extraneous stimuli or irrelevant thoughts” (inattention) and “Fidget with hands or feet or squirm in seat” (hyperactivity/impulsivity). Participants respond to each item on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (sometimes) to 4 (very often). They meet the criterion for a symptom if they select “often” or “very often.” The BAARS-IV demonstrates high internal consistency (α = .77 to .91; Barkley, 2011a), strong validity for assessing ADHD (see review, Caroline et al., 2024), and is widely used in ADHD research (e.g., Becker et al., 2014).
Executive Functioning (EF)
The Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale-Short Form (BDEFS-SF; Barkley, 2011b) is a 20-item, 5-subscale self-report scale designed to assess executive function difficulties associated with ADHD. Items are rated on a four-point scale identical to those used for the BAARS-IV. The BDEFS-SF demonstrates high internal consistency (α = .92; Allee-Smith et al., 2013), with higher scores indicating greater problems in executive functioning. Three subscales, each consisting of four items, were used in the present study. Lan et al. (2025) reported the following internal consistencies based on two samples: self-management to time (α = .79; “Procrastinate or put off doings things until the last minute”), self-organization/problem solving (α = .81; “Have difficulty explaining things in their proper order or sequence”), and self-motivation (α = .76–.78; “Do not put as much effort into my work as I should or than others are able to do”). The BDEFS-SF subscales are highly reliable, correlate strongly with the long-form version across gender and age groups, and show differential associations with ADHD when controlling for depression and anxiety (Lan et al., 2025).
Clear Vocational Identity
The My Vocational Situation (MVS; Holland, 1985) is a 26-item self-report scale assessing an individual’s clarity of vocational decision-making and goals. The MVS is composed of a primary 18-item subscale Vocational Identity, with two additional subscales (Occupational Information and Occupational Barriers) that are checklists as opposed to homogenous scales. The Vocational Identity primary subscale was used in the present study, which evaluates an individual’s clarity of vocational interest, confidence in their vocational choice-making, and whether their work is a good person-vocation fit (Holland, 1985). Sample items include career interest (“I am uncertain about which occupation I would enjoy”); vocational choice-making (“Making up my mind about a career has been a long and difficult problem for me”); person-vocation fit (“I am uncertain about the occupations I could perform well in”). Participants respond to each item as “True” = 0 or “False” = 1. Items are summed to produce a total score, and higher scores indicate a clearer vocational identity. The Vocational Identity subscale has been widely used in studies of occupational functioning (e.g., Qin & Tang, 2023) and has high internal consistency (α = .88-.89).
Job Satisfaction
The Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS; Spector, 1997) is a self-report assessment of an employee’s attitudes toward different aspects of their work. It is composed of 36 items that make up nine subscales and a total score. Items are scored on a 6-point Likert scale from 1 = “Disagree very much” to 6 = “Agree very much.” Items are summed to produce each subscale score and total scores, and higher scores indicate more job satisfaction. Example items include “I like doing the things I do at work” and “My job is enjoyable.” The total score was used in the present study, which has excellent reliability (α = .91), and the JSS is one of the most widely used job satisfaction scales (Hora et al., 2018).
Work Motivation
The Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale (MWMS; Gagné et al., 2015) is a 19-item self-report scale that assesses five dimensions of work motivation as proposed by self-determination theory. Items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from “Not at all” to “Completely/Entirely,” with items within each subscale summed to produce a total score. The Amotivation subscale (α = .79) was used in the present study, with higher scores indicating higher levels of amotivation at work. The subscale consists of three items (e.g., “I do little because I don’t think this work is worth putting effort into”). The MWMS has been translated and validated in seven languages (Gagné et al., 2015) and is widely used in research on work motivation (see review, Van den Broeck et al., 2021).
Income
Participants reported their approximate annual incomes on a categorical scale from $20,000 or less to $150,000 or more, with income categories increasing in $10,000 intervals.
Analytical Approach
Path analyses were conducted in Mplus version 8 (Muthén & Muthén, 2009) to investigate our first two aims. Specifically, two path analytic models were conducted to examine (1) whether clarity of vocational identity predicted higher income and job satisfaction while protecting against amotivation at work and (2) whether dimensions of ADHD symptoms (inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity) and executive functioning deficits (time management, organization, and motivation) are differentially associated with vocational identity. Age, sex, and medication status were included as covariates across all models. Model fit was examined using several indicators: the comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR). CFI values >.90 suggest good fit. RMSEA values <.06 indicate good fit. SRMR values <1.00 suggest good fit (Brown, 2015; Muthén & Muthén, 2009). Path analytic models were selected as they allow for simultaneous estimation of multiple interrelated pathways while accounting for shared variance among predictors and outcomes, providing an integrated test of our theoretical model and overall model fit (CFI, RMSEA, SRMR). This approach aligns with theoretical perspectives that conceptualize vocational identity, ADHD symptoms, and executive functioning as multidimensional and interdependent constructs (Kline, 2023; Muthén & Muthén, 2009).
For our final aim, hierarchical regression and moderation analyses were used to examine the moderating effect of ADHD symptom and executive functioning (EF) problem severity to vocational identity and each of our occupational outcomes. For the hierarchical regressions, demographic factors (age, sex, medication status) were entered in Step 1. Next, ADHD symptoms or executive functioning were added at Step 2, and then vocational identity at Step 3. With these main effects included in the models, interactions between our dimensions of ADHD symptoms (inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity) and executive functioning (time management, organization, and motivation problems) were then included into the model one at a time. Separate models were conducted for each outcome. To probe significant interaction effects, we used the PROCESS macro for SPSS (Hayes, 2017), which generates simple slopes at standardized reference points of the moderator (±1 SD and the mean) and produces corresponding interaction plots. Vocational identity was treated as a continuous variable, and the “low,” “average,” and “high” levels reflect these reference points rather than categorical groups.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among Primary Study Variables
Note. * indicates p < .05; ** indicates p ≤.01. Participants reported income on a categorical scale and thus is not represented in this table. Income ranged from $20,000 to $120,000 (M = 50,000 or less) on a categorical scale from $20,000 or less to $150,000 or more. Means and standard deviations are provided for all continuous variables.
Path Analyses
Aim 1: Association Between Vocational Identity to Income, Job Satisfaction, and Amotivation
In the path model for this aim (Figure 1(a)), results revealed higher levels of a clear vocational identity was associated with greater job satisfaction (β = 5.11, p < .001) and lower levels of amotivation at work (β = −5.96, p < .001), over and above age, sex, and medication status. No significant association was found for vocational identity to income (p = .35). Model fit for the model was good on all indices (SRMR <.001; RMSEA <.001; CFI = 1.00). Path analytic models evaluating the associations between (a) clear vocational identity with occupational functioning and (b) ADHD symptoms and EF to a clear vocational identity. Note. Standardized coefficients shown outside parentheses. SEs are shown inside parentheses. Dashed paths are nonsignificant. Covariances are not included for readability. Age, sex, and medication status are included in the model as covariates.
Aim 2: Association Between ADHD Symptoms and Executive Functioning to Vocational Identity
In addition, path analyses revealed higher levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms (β = −2.04, p = .04) and EF problems in time management (β = −2.25, p = .02), organization (β = −3.01, p = .003), and motivation (β = −2.35, p = .02) were associated with a less clear vocational identity (Figure 1(b)). These results were found over and above age, sex, and medication status. No significant association was found for inattention to vocational identity (p = .82). Similar to the prior model, fit statistics was good on all indices (SRMR <.001; RMSEA <.001; CFI = 1.00).
Hierarchical Regression and Moderation Analyses
Aim 3: Moderating Effect of a Clear Vocational Identity on ADHD Symptoms and Executive Functioning to Occupational Outcomes
Moderating Effects of ADHD Symptoms on Vocational Identity to Occupational Outcomes
Note. IA = inattention symptoms. HI = hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms. Variables in prior steps are included in the model at the next step but are not presented in the table for space. R 2 change of .01 = small, .06 = medium, and .14 = large (Cohen et al., 2003). *p < .05, **p < .01, and ***p < .001.
ADHD Symptoms
Regression analyses revealed that a clear vocational identity moderated the risk conferred by inattention (β = −.18, p < .001) and hyperactivity/impulsivity (β = −.33, p < .001) symptoms in relation to job satisfaction (Table 2). Specifically, the protective effects of high levels of a clear vocational identity (β = −3.30, p < .001) on the association between inattention and job satisfaction were stronger than those at mean levels of a clear vocational identity (β = −1.69, p < .001; Figure 2(a)). Similarly, job satisfaction was greatest for individuals with high levels of a clear vocational identity across all levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity symptom severity (Figure 2(b)). However, compared to mean (β = −2.82, p < .001) or low (β = −1.21, p < .001) levels of a clear vocational identity, the benefits of a high vocational identity to job satisfaction declined at the fastest rate as hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms increased (β = −4.43, p < .001). Results further revealed that a clear vocational identity moderated the risks conferred by hyperactivity/impulsivity (β = .15, p = .001) but not inattention (p = .48) symptoms in relation to amotivation at work. Visual depiction of the interaction revealed that individuals with high levels of a clear vocational identity experienced the least amotivation at work across all levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity symptom severity (Figure 2(c)). Nonetheless, as hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms increased, work amotivation rose most sharply for those with high (β = .88, p < .001) compared to mean (β = .76, p < .001) or low (β = .64, p = .0002) levels of vocational identity. No significant interactions were found for inattention or hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms with vocational identity on income (all ps > .21). Moderating effects of a clear vocational identity on inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity to job satisfaction and work amotivation. Note. One SD below or above the mean was used to characterize low and high vocational identity, inattention, and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms. Analyses controlled for sex, age, and medication status Moderating Effects of Executive Functioning on Vocational Identity to Occupational Outcomes Note. Variables in prior steps are included in the model at the next step but are not presented in the table for space. R
2
change of .01 = small, .06 = medium, and .14 = large (Cohen et al., 2003). *p < .05, **p < .01, and ***p < .001.
Executive Functioning
Regression analyses revealed that a clear vocational identity moderated the risk conveyed by EF problems in time management (β = −.33, p < .001) and motivation (β = .15, p < .002) to job satisfaction. Visual depiction of the interactions indicated that higher levels of a clear vocational identity were consistently associated with greater job satisfaction across all levels of EF problems in time management and motivation (Figure 3(a)). Nonetheless, as time-management problems increased, job satisfaction declined more steeply for individuals with high levels of a clear vocational identity (β = −4.38, p < .001) than for those at mean levels of a clear vocational identity (β = −2.51, p < .001) or low (β = −.64, p = .003). Similarly, as EF problems with motivation increased, job satisfaction declined at the fastest rate for individuals with high levels of a clear vocational identity (β = −3.79, p < .001) compared with those at mean (β = −2.34, p < .001) or low (β = −.89, p = .0002) levels (Figure 3(b)). In addition, the EF-motivation-problems × vocational identity interaction was significant (β = .33, p < .001). Probing the interaction revealed that individuals with high levels of a clear vocational identity reported the lowest work amotivation overall, across all levels of EF motivation problems (Figure 3(c)). However, as EF motivation problems increased, work amotivation rose most sharply among individuals with high (β = .88, p < .001) compared with mean (β = .76, p < .001) or low (β = .63, p < .001) levels of a clear vocational identity. No significant interaction effects between our indicators of executive functioning and vocational identity were found for income (all ps > .41; Table 3). Moderating effects of a clear vocational identity on EF time management and motivation to job satisfaction and work amotivation. Note. One SD below or above the mean was used to characterize low and high vocational identity as well as EF time management and motivation problems. Analyses controlled for sex, age, and medication status
Discussion
To our knowledge, the present study is the first to evaluate the benefits of a clear vocational identity on job satisfaction, motivation at work, and income among working adults with ADHD. Additional novel contributions include evaluating risk factors for, and protective effects of, vocational identity on occupational functioning in ADHD. Results revealed that a clear vocational identity is associated with greater job satisfaction and protects against work amotivation, though no significant associations were found with income. Collectively, our results align with evidence from general samples indicating that a clear vocational identity predicts perceived work experiences, such as greater life satisfaction and reduced job burnout (Hirschi & Herrmann, 2012; Hu et al., 2022), but not financial outcomes (Humlum et al., 2012). Our findings further provide initial evidence that a clear vocational identity may serve as a promising intervention target for occupational well-being among adults with ADHD, despite the significant neurobehavioral and occupational risks associated with the disorder (Gordon & Fabiano, 2019; Kofler et al., 2019).
In addition, the results showed that hyperactivity and impulsivity symptoms, along with difficulties in time management, organization, and motivation, were associated with less clear vocational identities. Interestingly, in the present study, inattention severity was not associated with vocational identity clarity, which may reflect a ceiling effect given that participants were required to meet criteria for either the inattentive or combined ADHD presentation. Nonetheless, our results are consistent with prior work that show higher levels of disinhibition and EF problems among college students are associated with lower levels of vocational commitment and confidence (Welsh & Schmitt-Wilson, 2013). Study findings also align with evidence that EF deficits in individuals with ADHD limit their ability to self-regulate and consistently work towards long-term goals (Barkley, 2010). This may result in frequently shifting vocational interests that adversely affect an individual’s ability to form a clear and stable vocational identity. Similarly, individuals with more severe hyperactivity/impulsivity and executive function problems are at higher risk for experiencing interpersonal and performance problems at work (Chan & Langberg, 2024), that, in turn, may lead to lower levels of a clear vocational identity.
As noted in the introduction, our findings can also be understood through the lens of SCCT, where difficulties with executive functioning and ADHD symptoms may influence self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goal-directed behaviors (Brown & Lent, 2023). For example, an employee with ADHD may struggle to meet deadlines or may interrupt supervisors, leading to inconsistent evaluations. These experiences can reduce expectations of promotion and success, undermining confidence in their career trajectory. To that end, interventions that provide psychoeducation and behavioral strategies for managing ADHD symptoms and core executive function difficulties (e.g., Anastopoulos et al., 2021) may improve workplace functioning. This approach may help individuals with ADHD achieve more positive workplace experiences that strengthen their vocational identity.
We additionally found that a clear vocational identity moderates the risk conferred by ADHD symptom severity and executive functioning problems on job satisfaction and work motivation. Specifically, individuals with high levels of a clear vocational identity experienced greater job satisfaction and lower work amotivation, compared to individuals with average or low levels of a clear vocational identity. These effects were found across all levels of inattention and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms, as well as executive function problems in time management and motivation. This is an important finding because it suggests that greater clarity and strength in vocational identity can lead to benefits in occupational outcomes. Future research should evaluate whether existing vocational interventions for the general population also promote a clear vocational identity for working adults with ADHD. Common components of such interventions include group-based activities that target narrative identity, career adaptability, and vocational planning (Cardoso et al., 2022; Kush & Cochran, 1993), as well as developing professional relationships, such as identifying mentors or sharing experiences with peers at work (e.g., Wang et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2023).
However, extant vocational interventions will likely be more effective if tailored to meet the specific needs of individuals with ADHD. For example, from the lens of Holland’s theory of vocational choice (for a review, see Zainudin et al., 2020), adults with ADHD may experience a person-environment misfit when their jobs do not align with their interests, strengths, or executive function capacities and symptom presentations. An adult with ADHD who has strong creative tendencies but struggles with time management may feel out of place in a highly structured, deadline-driven job that requires constant organization. By incorporating principles of person-environment fit, vocational identity interventions could help adults with ADHD better understand how their diagnosis affects daily functioning, identify tasks in which they are likely to excel, and choose work environments that align with their interests and enhance job satisfaction.
Along these lines, our findings suggest that existing interventions may be insufficient, particularly for individuals with high levels of ADHD symptoms and executive functioning difficulties. As ADHD symptoms and EF problems increase, the protective effects of a clear vocational identity on job satisfaction and work motivation appear to diminish most rapidly. This suggests that adults with ADHD may first need to develop behavioral strategies to strengthen executive functioning before traditional vocational identity interventions can be fully effective. Notably, no significant moderation effects were found for a clear vocational identity on the relationship between ADHD symptoms or EF problems and income. This aligns with prior research indicating that a clear vocational identity influences how individuals feel about their work but does not necessarily determine financial outcomes (Humlum et al., 2012). Other factors, such as workplace policies (Ferragina, 2020), may serve as stronger predictors of financial outcomes for working adults with ADHD.
Limitations & Future Research
Several study limitations warrant consideration. First, the study’s cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences. Although path analysis allows for the simultaneous estimation of multiple interrelated pathways, it cannot determine the directionality of effects among vocational identity, ADHD symptoms, and executive functioning. Additionally, the use of path analytic methods introduces the possibility of common method bias, which may inflate associations among constructs. Further, although all study measures were well-validated and workplace-specific, they relied on self-report data. Future research could address these limitations by incorporating longitudinal designs, multi-method assessments (e.g., behavioral tasks and informant reports), and experimental or intervention approaches to better establish temporal and causal relationships. For example, daily diary methods, in which individuals report fluctuations in ADHD symptoms and executive functioning in relation to time of day, job demands, and social interactions, may further elucidate in-the-moment work experiences. It will also be beneficial to control for related constructs, such as self-efficacy, to understand their impact and demonstrate discriminant validity.
Moreover, while the sample included adults with ADHD from diverse ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic backgrounds, the absence of a formal power analysis and the modest sample size may limit the ability to detect smaller effect sizes and examine subgroup differences. Further, study inclusion criteria required participants to work at least 20 hours per week while enrolled in no more than one academic course. Although this criterion reflects the realities faced by many adults with ADHD, it constrained our ability to examine the impact of industry, profession, or job position (e.g., managerial vs. non-managerial roles). Different occupational contexts may impose distinct demands on executive functioning, self-regulation, and vocational identity. Future research would also benefit from larger sample sizes to examine if vocational identity varies across work contexts for individuals with ADHD.
Clinical Implications and Conclusion
Taken together, the current findings provide strong initial evidence for a clear vocational identity as a protective factor and promising intervention target for occupational functioning in ADHD. While job satisfaction and work motivation are often impaired in ADHD (Chan & Langberg, 2024; Biederman et al., 2006; Gordon & Fabiano, 2019), we found a clear vocational identity was associated with higher levels of both outcomes among working adults with ADHD. We additionally found hyperactivity/impulsivity and executive function problems (time management, organization, motivation) were significantly associated with lower levels of a clear vocational identity. Further, a clear vocational identity was found to moderate the effects of ADHD symptoms and executive function problems to job satisfaction and work amotivation. Clinical implications of our study findings suggest that career assessments should consider a broad range of factors. These include not only typical career development constructs, such as career interests, values, and goals related to vocational identity, but also ADHD symptom severity and executive functioning impairments. These assessments can help career counselors decide whether to recommend ADHD treatment, such as organizational skills training that can reduce time management and organization problems (e.g., Anastopoulos et al., 2021), either before or alongside strategies used in traditional vocational identity interventions (Crocetti et al., 2024). Career counselors may also provide psychoeducation on how symptoms can affect workplace relationships and incorporate cognitive-behavioral strategies to address unhelpful thoughts that arise in response to work-related challenges associated with ADHD. Taken together, these approaches can enhance individuals with ADHD’s readiness to engage in and benefit from career interventions, thereby, improving the overall effectiveness of those interventions in supporting vocational identity development.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.