Black women, like other women of color, find themselves at the intersection of both racism and sexism in the workplace. Due to their unique dual status as racial and gender minorities, they encounter unique and unexplored barriers that inhibit their career as well as leadership development. The goal of this article is to highlight the emerging literature on how images of professional Black women align with their workplace experiences, and to highlight how these experiences may derail their ability to fully reach their potential. The authors also hope to motivate researchers and practitioners to investigate areas of practice that may better support these women's career development.
Agars, M.D. (2004). Reconsidering the impact of gender stereotypes on the advancement of women in organizations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 103-111.
2.
Bell, E.L., & Nkomo, S.M. (2001). Our separate ways: Black and White women and the struggle for professional identity. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
3.
Bryant, R.M., Coker, A.D., Durodoye, B.A., McCollum, V.J., Pack-Brown, S.P., Constantine, M.G., et al. (2005). Having our say: African American women, diversity, and counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development , 83, 313-319.
4.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2006). Table 11. Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, Annual Averages. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved September 25, 2008, from ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/lf/aa2006/pdf/cpsaat11.pdf
5.
Catalyst. (1999). Women of color in corporate management: Opportunities and barriers. Retrieved October 15, 2005, from http://www.catalyst.org.
6.
Catalyst. (2002). Catalyst census of women corporate officers and top earners of the Fortune 500. New York: Author.
7.
Catalyst. (2004). Advancing African American women in the workplace: What managers need to know. Retrieved September 20, 2006, from http://www.catalyst.org.
8.
Devine, P.G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 56, 5-18.
9.
Dovidio, J.F., & Gaertner, S.L. (2000). Aversive racism and selection decisions: 1989 and 1999. Psychological Science, 11, 315-319.
10.
Dreher, G.F., & Cox, T.H. (1996). Race, gender and opportunity: A study of compensation attainment and the establishment of mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 297-308.
11.
Eagly, A.H., Makhijani, M., & Klonsky, B.G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin, 111, 3-22.
12.
Fujioka, Y. (1999). Television portrayals and African American stereotypes: Examination of television effects when direct contact is lacking. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 76, 52-75.
13.
Fullerton, H.J., & Toosi, M. (2001). Labor force projections to 2010: Steady growth and changing composition. Monthly Labor Review, 124(11), 21-38.
14.
Givens, S.M.B., & Monahan, J.L. (2005). Priming mammies, jezebels, and other controlling images: An examination of the influence of mediated stereotypes on perceptions of an AfricanAmerican woman. Media Psychology, 7, 87-106.
15.
Hansen, C.H., & Hansen, R.D. (1988). Priming stereotypic appraisal of social interactions: How rock music videos can change what's seen when boy meets girl. Sex Roles, 19, 287-316.
16.
Harrison, M.S., & Thomas, K.M. (in press). The hidden prejudice in selection: A research investigation on skin color bias. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.
17.
Heilman, M.E., & Okimoto, T.G. (2007). Why are women penalized for success at male tasks? The implied community deficit. Journal of Applied Psychology , 92, 81-92.
18.
Jewell, K.S. (1993). From mammy to Miss America and beyond: Cultural images and the shaping of U.S. social policy. New York : Routledge.
19.
Jones, M. (2002). Social psychology of prejudice. Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ.
20.
Jones, C., & Shorter-Gooden, K. (2003). Shifting: The double lives of Black women in America. New York: HarperCollins.
21.
Maier, M. (1997). Invisible privilege: What White men don't see . Diversity Factor, 5(4), 28-33.
22.
Mio, J.S., Barker-Hackett, L., & Tumambing, J. (2006). Multicultural psychology:Understanding our diverse communities. New York: McGraw Hill .
23.
National Center for Educational Statistics. ( 2005). Digest of educational statistics. Retrieved October 15, 2006, from http://www.nces.ed.gov.
24.
Ohlott, P.J., Ruderman, M.N., & McCauley, C.D. (1994). Gender differences in managers' developmental job experiences. Academy of Management Journal , 37, 46-67.
25.
Pilgrim, D. (2000). The mammy caricature. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/mammies.
26.
Pilgrim, D. (2002). Jezebel stereotype. Retrieved February 15, 2006, from http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/jezebel.
27.
Proudford, K.L., & Thomas, K.M. (1999). Organizational outsiders within. Journal of Career Development, 26, 1-6.
28.
Ragins, B.R., & McFarlin, D.B. (1990). Perceptions of mentor roles in cross-gender mentoring relationships. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 37, 321-339.
29.
Richie, B.S., Fassinger, R.E., Linn, S.J., & Johnson, J. (1997). Persistence, connection, and passion: A qualitative study of the career development of highly achieving African American-Black and White women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 133-148.
30.
Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. Holt, Rinehart, & Winston: New York.
31.
Rudman, L.A., & Kilanski, S.E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1315-1328.
32.
Spencer, S.J., Steele, C.M., & Quinn, D.M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women's math performance . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4-28.
33.
Steele, C.M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69, 797-811.
34.
Thomas, D.A. (1989). Mentoring and irrationality: The role of racial taboos. Human Resource Management, 28, 279-290.
35.
Thompson, C.E., & Neville, H.A. (1999). Racism, mental health, and mental health practice . The Counseling Psychologist, 27, 155-223.
36.
Toosi, M. (2005). Labor force projections to 2014: Retiring boomers . Monthly Labor Review, 128(11), 25-44.
37.
Usa, Today. (1993, July 1). Black women on TV still stereotyped, 122(2578), 7.
38.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ( 1991). (3rd ed). Washington, DC : U.S. Government Printing Office.
39.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. ( 2003). Occupational employment in private industry by race/ethnic group/sex and by industry, United States. Retrieved on November 4, 2006, from, http://www.eeoc.gov/stats/jobpat/2003/national.html .
40.
Wallace, M. (1979). Black macho and the myth of the superwoman. New York: Verso.
41.
West, C.M. (1995). Mammy, Sapphire, and Jezebel: Historical images of Black women and their implications for psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 32, 458-466.
42.
Wiltz, T. (2004, Febraury 25). The evil sista of reality television . Washington Post, p. 3.
43.
Word, C.O., Zanna, M.P., & Cooper, J. (1974). The nonverbal mediation of self-fulfilling prophecies in interracial interaction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 109-120.
