One of the most interesting and least understood of the software applications in political campaigns is so-called geographical information systems, or GIS. It is technology that allows campaigns to systematically look at their constituencies in new ways, through multilayered and colorful maps. Through a combination of cartography and demographic research, GIS allows candidates and political campaigns to access voters in a multimedia context that can be put together with the most advanced techniques from marketing and demographics to create a sophisticated form of mapping technology with direct applicability to political campaigns. This article is a review of GIS software applications in political campaigns, with particular attention to its use in the 1992 presidential election by the Clinton campaign.
Ansolabehere, S., & Iyengar, S. (1995). Going negative: How political advertisements shrink and polarize the electorate. New York: Free Press.
2.
Arterton, F.C. (1993). Campaign '92: Strategies and tactics of the candidates . In G. Pomper (Ed.), The election of 1992 (pp. 74-109). Chatham, NJ: Chatham House.
3.
Benson, T.W. (1994). The first e-mail election: Electronic networking and the Clinton campaign. In S. A. Smith (Ed.), Bill Clinton on stump, state and stage: The rhetorical road to the White House (pp. 315-340). Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press.
4.
Blakeman, B.W. (1995, August). Tracking polls: How to do them. Campaigns and Elections, 16 (8), pp. 24-25.
5.
Bleecker, J. (1995, April). Urban cnsis: Past, present and virtual . Socialist Review, 24(1/2), 189-221.
6.
Bogart, L. (1987). The future study of public opinion: A symposium . Public Opinion Quarterly, 51(4), 173-191.
7.
Bolger, G., & McInturff, B. (1995, August). Tracking polls: Avoiding mistakes. Campaigns and Elections, p. 26.
8.
Booth, K. (1995, April). Internet bonanza: Fifteen reasons why you should go online before the next election. Campaigns and Elections , 16(4), 34-35.
9.
Brace, K., & Jaede, M. (1984). Computer graphics: Campaign targeting and micro-mapping . Campaigns and Elections, 5(1), 62-72.
10.
Bryan, N.S. (1993, March/April). GIS helps produce Clinton's victory . Business Geographics [On-line]. Available: NEXIS/LEXIS
11.
Bryan, N.S. (1994). How to use GIS in electoral politics. In H. Rheingold (Ed.), The millennium whole earth catalog (p. 293). San Francisco: Harper.
12.
Buie, J., & Gallie, C. (1995, November). Internet gives Democrats opportunity to re-connect. Internet Democrats [On-line]. Available: http://www.webcom.com/∼digitals
13.
Bury, S. (1994). InterfaceNew York: Bantam Books.
14.
Curtis, C. (1995, October). High tech activists: How advanced communications are changing the way pro-family advocates work. Christian American, 6(8), 20-23.
15.
Diamond, E., & Silverman, R.A. (1995). White House to your house: Media and politics m virtual America. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
16.
Duffy, C. (1989, March/April). Campaign computing: Market forces and new features mean even a grassroots budget can afford a technological edge. Campaigns and Elections, 9(7), 24.
17.
Edmondson, B. (1986, November). The political sell American Demographics , 8(11), 26-29.
18.
Fenno, R.F. (1978). Home style: House members in their districts. New York: HarperCollins.
19.
Ferguson, T. (1995). Golden rule: The investment theory of party competition and the logic of money-driven political systems. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
20.
Ganz, M. (1995). Voters in the crosshairs: How technology and the market are destroying politics. In W. D. Burnham (Ed.), The American prospect reader in American politics (pp. 204-217). Chatham, NJ: Chatham House.
21.
Garson, G.D. (1996). Maptitude. Social Science Computer Review, 14(1), 129-131.
22.
Gersh, M. (1988, May/June). Against all odds: The key to effective targeting is knowing what information to gather and how to use it. Campaigns and Elections, 9(1), 37-42.
23.
Gingrich, N. (1995). To renew America. New York : HarperCollins.
24.
Ginsberg, B. (1986). The captive public: How mass opinion promotes state power. New York: Basic Books .
25.
Godwin, R.K. (1992). Money, technology and political interests: The direct marketing of politics. In M. Petracca (Ed.), The politics of interests: Interest group politics transformed (pp. 308-325). Boulder, CO: Westview .
26.
Goldman, P., & Mathews, T. (1992, November/December). Manhattan Project 1992, With dial and focus groups, Clinton's people recast his campaign in midcourse to reach a national audience. Newsweek, pp. 40-56.
27.
Greenberg, S. (1991). From cnsis to working majority. The American Prospect, 7 (Fall), 104-117.
28.
Greenberg, S.B. (1995). Middle class dreams: The politics and power of the new American majority. New York: Times Book.
29.
Hamilton, W.R. (1995). Political polling: From the beginning to the center . In J. A. Thurber & C. J. Nelson (Eds.), Campaigns and elections American style (pp. 161-180). Boulder, CO: Westview .
30.
Hammett, J. (1992, November 30). Computer mapping helped Clinton campaign target voters. InfoWorld, 14(48), 12.
31.
Heilemann, J. (1995, December). The making of the president 2000. Wired, pp. 153-155.
32.
Herbst, S. (1993). Numbered voices: How opinion polling has shaped American politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
33.
Herrnson, P.S. (1995). Field work, political parties and volunteerism . In J. A. Thurber & C. J. Nelson (Eds.), Campaigns and elections American style (pp. 152-160). Boulder, CO: Westview .
34.
Hertzke, A.D., & R.M. Peters, Jr. (1992). Interpreting the atomistic Congress. In A. D. Hertzke & R. Peters, Jr. (Eds.), The atomistic Congress: An interpretation of congressional change (pp. 1-22). Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe.
35.
Hill, D. (1991, September). Strategic polling: The fine art of honing in on voter preferences. Campaigns and Elections, 12(3), 26-34.
36.
Hughes, R.H. (1994, August). Hitting the mark: Targeting by turnout . Campaigns and Elections, 15(8), 24-25.
37.
Internet Democrat. (1995, July). Political software for the next century. Internet Democrat: Building the Democratic Party for the 21st century, 1(11) [On-line]. Available: http://www.webcom.com/∼digitals
38.
Kazin, M. (1995). The populist persuasion: An American history. New York: Basic Books.
39.
Kline, D., & Burstein, D. (1996, January). Is government obsolete? Wired, 4(1), 86-104.
40.
Kolbert, E. (1992, August 30). Test marketing a president. New York Times Magazine, pp. 18-21.
41.
Larson, E. (1992). The naked consumer: How our private lives become public commodities. New York: Penguin Books.
42.
Luntz, F.I. (1988). Candidates, consultants and campaigns: The style and substance of American electioneering. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
43.
Luntz, F.I. (1994). The makings of a good focus group. The Polling Report, 10 (11), 1, 8.
44.
Mapping software technology: A key tool in developing a winning strategy for the presidential race. (1992, November 17). Business Wire [On-line]. Availbale: NEXIS/LEXIS.
45.
Marino, V. (1995, November 12). Pathfinder for small firms: Mapping software make mom and pop competitive. Savannah Morning News and Evening Press, p. 6F.
46.
Maullin, R., & Quirk, C. (1995, August). Audience response systems. Campaigns and Elections, p. 27.
47.
McCurry, M. (1989, March/April). The new electronic politics. Campaigns and Elections, 9(7), 23-32.
48.
McGerr, M.E. (1986). The decline of popular politics, the American north, 1865-1928. New York: Oxford University Press.
49.
Mitchell, C. (1995, December/January). Wired in to the war room. George, pp. 232-234.
50.
Mockus, J. (1980). Geodemographics: Targeting your turnout. Campaigns and Elections, 1(2), 55-63.
51.
Montague, C. (1992, February). Clinton follows computer maps to White House. American Demographics, 15(2), 13-15.
52.
Myers, D.D. (1993, November). New technology and the 1992 Clinton presidential campaignAmerican Behavioral Scientist, 37(2), 181-187.
53.
Newman, B.I. (1994). The marketing of the president: Political marketing as campaign strategy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
54.
Nicholson, J. (1989, March/April). Campaigning via satellite. Campaigns and Elections, 9(7), 30-31.
55.
Persinos, J.F. (1995, September). Third party rising? Voter discontent is opening an opportunity for a new political force. Campaigns and Elections, pp. 20-21.
56.
Phillips, K. (1993). Boiling point: Republicans, Democrats and the decline of middle class prosperity. New York: Random House.
57.
Pink, D.H. (1995, December/January). The information campaign: Thanks to the Internet, political campaigns are not only getting cheaper, they're getting better. George, p. 74.
Pool, I.D.S., & Abelson, R. (1961). The Simulmatics Project. Public Opinion Quarterly, 25(2), 167-183.
60.
Putnam, R.D. (1995a, January). Bowling alone: America's declining social capital. The Journal of Democracy, 6(1), 65-78.
61.
Putnam, R.D. (1995b, December). Tuning in, tuning out: The strange disappearance of social capital in America. PS: Political Science and Politics, 28(4), 664-683.
62.
Reich, R. (1995). America's anxious class. New Perspectives Quarterly, 12(1), 28-30.
63.
Rheingold, H. (1991). Virtual reality. New York: Summit Books.
64.
Robbin, J. (1980). Geodemographics: The new magic. Campaigns and Elections, 1(1), 25-34.
65.
Rosenstone, S.J., & Hansen, J.M. (1993). Mobilization, participation and democracy in America . New York: Macmillan.
66.
Sargent, G., & Lindgren, H. (1995, October/November). Gut reaction: How politicians discover what Americans want to hear. George, pp. 120-122.
67.
Selnow, G.W. (1994). High tech campaigns: Computer technology in political communication. Westport, CN: Praeger .
68.
Stallabrass, J. (1995, May/June). Empowering technology: The exploration of cyberspace. New Left Review, 211, 3-32.
69.
Starobin, P. (1995, September 30). The politics of anxiety. The National Journal, 27(39), 2402-2407.
70.
Starobin, P. (1996, May 25). On the square: The Internet has created an electronic public square in American politics, a funky, combative domain where guerrilla tactics abound. The National Journal, 28(21), 1145-1149.
71.
Wayne, S.J. (1996). The road to the White House 1996: The politics of presidential elections. New York: St. Martin's.
72.
Weiss, M.J. (1988). The clustering of America. New York: Harper & Row.
