Scholars who apply artificial mtelligence to political questions seek, most generally, to expand the scope and relevance of political model analysis. By incorporating the effects of variable human notions, traditions, and meanings, they seek to humanize political models. Most early applications of artificial intelligence in political science research address substantive issues pertaining to political decision making. Most of these works apply production-system technology to construct choice models in for eign-policy decision contexts. In recent years, political applications have begun to diver sify. Today, lively research efforts flourish in widely varied application areas, such as computational text analysis, logic programming, computer learning, and conflict sim ulation. The works reviewed here constitute the early steps of a nascent program of study. Much remains to be accomplished. Nevertheless, the efforts conducted thus far suggest many potentially fruitful research avenues. Keywords: artificial intelligence, production systems, logic programming, computational hermeneutics, belief models, political simulation, political science.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abelson, R.P.1973. The structure of belief systems In Computer models of thought and language, ed. R. Schank & K. M. Colby, 297-340. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Alker, H.R., Jr.1975. Polimetrics: Its descriptive foundations In Handbook of political science , vol. 7, ed. F. Greenstein & N. Polsby, 140-210. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
4.
—. 1988. The dialectical logic of Thucydides' Melian DialogueAmerican Political Science Review82:805-20
Alker, H.R., Jr., & Christensen, C.1972. From causal modelling to artificial intelligence : The evolution of a UN peace-making simulation In Experimentation and simulation in political science , ed. J. LaPonce & P. Smoker, 177-223. Toronto: Umversity of Toronto Press.
7.
Alker, H.R., Jr., & Greenberg, W.J.1976. On simulating collective security regime alternatives In Thought and action in foreign policy, ed. G. M. Bonham & M. J. Shapiro. Basel: Birkhauser Verlag.
8.
Alker, H.R., Jr., Duffy, G., Hurwitz, R., & Mallery, J.C.1991. Text modeling for international politics: A tourist's guide to relatus In Artificial intelligence and international politics, ed. V. M. Hudson, 97-126. Boulder: Westview.
9.
Alker, H.R., Jr., Lehnert,W.C., & Schneider, D.K.1985. Two reinterpretations of Toynbee's Jesus: Explorations in computational hermeneutics In Artificial intelligence and text understanding, ed. Graziella Tonfom. Special issue of Quaderm di Ricerca Linguistica 6:49-94.
10.
Anderson, J.R.1983. The architecture of cognitionCambridge : Harvard University Press.
11.
Anderson, P.A., & Thorson, S.J.1982. Artificial intelligence based simulations of foreign policy decsion makingBehavioral Science27:176-93.
12.
Banerjee, S.1986. Reproduction of social structures: An artificial intelligence modelJournal of Conflict Resolution30:221-52.
13.
Bennett, J.P., & Thorson, S.J.1991. Reasoning and intelligibility In Artificial intelligence and international politics, ed. V. M. Hudson, 127-48. Boulder: Westview.
14.
Bremer, S.A., & Mihalka, M.1977. Machiavelli in Machina: Or politics among hexagons In Problems of world modeling: Political and social implications , eds. K. W. Deutsch, B. Fritsch, H. Jaquaribe, and A. S. Markovits, 303-37. Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing.
15.
Carbonell, J.G., Jr. , 1978. POLITICS: Automated ideological reasoningCognitive Science2:27-51.
16.
—. 1981. Counterplannmg: A strategy-based model of adversary planning in real-world situationsArtificial Intelligence16:295-329.
17.
Charmak, E., & McDermott, D.1985. Introduction to artificial intelligenceReading: Addison-Wesley.
18.
Cohen, J.D.1992. Testing the homogeneity of voting decision rules using an adaptive classification algorithm. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Texas at Austm.
19.
Cusack, T.R., & Stoll, R.J.1990. Exploring realpolitik Probing international relations theory with computer simulationBoulder: Lynne Reiner Publishers.
20.
Duffy, G.1991. Time space: Representing historical time for efficient event retrieval In Artificial intelligence and international politics, ed. V. M. Hudson, 386-405. Boulder: Westview.
21.
—. 1986. Categorial disambiguation. In AAAI-86 Proceedings of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence, 1057-61. Los Altos, CA: William Kaufmann, Inc.
22.
—. 1992. Concurrent interstate conflict simulations: Testing the effects of the serial assumptionMathematical and Computer Modelling16:241-70.
23.
—. 1994. Events and versions: Reconstructing event data analysisInternational Interactions20:147-67.
24.
Duffy, G., & Mallery, J.C.1984. Referential determinism and computational efficiency: Posting constraints from deep structure. In AAAI-84 Proceedings of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence, 101-105. Los Altos, CA: William Kaufmann, Inc.
25.
Ensign, M.M.1985. An analysis of private bank loans to developing countries The relationship between bankers' images and their lending policiesNew York: Gordon and Breech.
26.
Friedman, M.1953. The methodology of positive economics. In Essays on positive economics, 3-43. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
27.
Holland, J.H.1975. Adaptation in natural and artificial systemsAnn Arbor. University of Michigan Press .
28.
Hudson, V.M.1991. Scripting international power dramas: A model of situational predisposition In Artificial intelligence and international politics, ed. V. M. Hudson, 194-220. Boulder : Westview Press.
29.
Job, B.L., & Johnson, D.1991. UNCLESAM: The application of a rule-based model of U.S. foreign policy making In Artificial intelligence and international politics, ed. V. Hudson, 221-44. Boulder: Westview Press.
30.
Katz, B.1988. Text processing with the START natural language system In Text, context, and hypertext Writing with and for the computer, ed. E. Barrett, 55-77. Cambridge : MIT Press.
31.
Katz, B., & Wmston, P.H.1982. A two-way natural language interface In Integrated interactive computer systems, ed. P. Degano & E. Sandawall. Amsterdam: North-Holland .
32.
Majeski, S.1989. A rule based model of the United States military expenditure decision-making processInternational Interactions15:129-54.
33.
Mallery, J.C.1985. Universality and individuality: The interaction of noun phrase determiners in copular clauses In Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics , 35-42.
34.
—.1985a . Constraint-interpreting referenceCambridge : MIT AI Laboratory Memo 827.
35.
—. 1987. Thinking about foreign policy: Finding an appropriate role for artificially intelligent computers SM thesis, MIT Department of Political Science.
36.
—. 1991. Semantic content analysis: A new methodology for the relatus natural language environment In Artificial intelligence and international politics, ed. V. M. Hudson, 347-85. Boulder : Westview.
Mallery, John C., Hurwitz, R., & Duffy, G.1987. Hermeneutics In The encyclopedia of artificial intelligence, ed. S. C. Shapiro, 362-76. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
39.
Mallery, J.C., & Sherman, F.L.1993. Learning historical rules of major power intervention in the post-war international systemPaper presented to the International Studies Association, Acapulco.
40.
Mefford, D.1992. From struggle to dialogue. The revolution in Soviet political languagePaper presented to the Annual Meeting of the international Studies Association, Atlanta.
41.
Peirce, C.S.1955Abduction and induction In Philosophical Writings of Peirce, ed. Justus Buchler, New York: Dover.
42.
Phillips, W.R. & Ensign, M.M.1982. Self-reliance and political development: Simulations of inner environmentsInternational Political Science Review3:455-78.
43.
Qume, W.V.O.1953. Two dogmas of empiricism. In From a logical point of view , 20-46. New York: Harper and Row.
44.
Schank, R.C., & Abelson, R.P.1977. Scripts, plans, goals and understandingHills-dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
45.
Schelling, T.C.1971. Dynamic models of segregationJournal of Mathematical Sociology1:143-86
46.
—. 1978. Micromotives and macrobehaviorNew York: Norton.
47.
Schrodt, P.A.1981. Conflicts as determinant of territoryBehavior Science26:37-50.
48.
—. 1989. Short-term prediction of international events using a Holland classifierMathematical and Computer Modelling12:589-600.
49.
—. 1991. Pattern recognition of international event sequences: A machine learning approach In Artificial intelligence and international politics, ed. V. M. Hudson, 169-93. Boulder : Westview Press
50.
Sherman, F.L.1994. SherFACS: A cross-paradigm, hierarchical and contextually sensitive conflict data setInternational Interactions20:79-100.
51.
Sherman, F.L., Mallery, J.C. , Unseld, S.C., & Duffy, G.1992. Grammars of conflict and cooperation in the post-war international systemPaper presented to the International Studies Association, Atlanta.
52.
Simon, H.A.1981. The sciences of the artificial2ded. Cambridge: MIT Press.
53.
Sylvan, D.A., Goel, A., & Chandrasekaran, B.1990. Analyzing political decision making from an information-processing perspective: JESSEAmerican Journal of Political Science34.74-123.
54.
—. 1991. Modeling foreign policy decision making as knowledge-based reasoning In Artificial intelligence and international politics, ed. V. M. Hudson, 245-73. Boulder: Westview Press
55.
Sylvan, D.A., & Thorson, S.J.1992. Ontologies, problem representation, and the Cuban missile crisisJournal of Conflict Resolution36:709-32.
56.
Taber, C.S.1992. POLI: An expert system model of U.S. foreign policy belief systemsAmerican Political Science Review86:888-904.
57.
Taber, C.S., & Timpone, R.1994. The Policy Arguer: the architecture of an expert systemSocial Science Computer Review12:1-25.
58.
Tanaka, A.1984. China, China watching, and CHINA-WATCHER In Foreign policy decision making: Perception, cognition, and artificial intelligence , ed. D. A. Sylvan & S. Chan. New York : Praeger.
59.
Thorson, S.J.1984. Intentional inferencing on foreign policy: An AI approach In Foreign policy decision making Perception, cognition, and artificial intelligence, ed. D. A. Sylvan & S. Chan, 280-309. New York: Praeger.
60.
Thorson, S.J. & Sylvan, D.A.1982. Counterfactuals and the Cuban missile crisisInternational Studies Quarterly26:539-71.
