One of the pitfalls of past research in upward influence communication is that messages are often categorized using more than one characteristic. This categorization has made it difficult to understand how different message characteristics affect supervisors’ perceptions about employees. Given the importance of supervisor perceptions for the future of employees in the organization, this study uses principles of language expectancy theory (LET) to explore how message content (benefit organization vs. no benefit) and delivery style (aggressive vs. nonaggressive) in upward communication situations affect perceptions of personal reputation and work competence. Participants, acting in the role of supervisors, read one of four scenarios and evaluated a new employee. Results suggest that delivery style and message content independently influence the supervisor’s willingness to grant a request as well as influence perceptions of personal reputation, whereas perceptions of work competence are primarily affected by message content. Implications of results for theory and practice are discussed.
AmbadyN.RosenthalR. (1992). Thin slices of expressive behavior as predictors of interpersonal consequences: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 256-274.
2.
AmbroseM. L.HarlandL. K. (1995). Procedural justice and influence tactics: Fairness, frequency, and effectiveness. In CropanzanoR.KacmarK. M. (Eds.), Organizational politics, justice and support: Managing the social climate of the workplace (pp. 97-130). Westport, CT: Quorum.
3.
AnsariM. A.KapoorA. (1987). Organizational context and upward influence tactics. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 40, 39-49.
4.
BalzerW. K.SulskyL. M. (1992). Halo and performance appraisal research: A critical examination. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 975-985.
5.
BarnettM. L.JermierJ. M.LaffertyB. A. (2006). Corporate reputation: The definitional landscape. Corporate Reputation Review, 9(1), 26-38.
6.
BoteroI. C.Van Dyne (2009). Employee voice behavior: Interactive effects of LMX and power distance in the United States and Colombia. Management Communication Quarterly, 23(1), 84-104.
7.
BromleyD. B. (1993). Reputation, image and impression management. New York, NY: Wiley.
8.
BurgoonM. (1995). Language expectancy theory: Elaboration, explication and extension. In BergerC. R.BurgoonM. (Eds.), Communication and social influence processes (pp.29-52). East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.
9.
BurgoonM.DenningV. P.RobertsL. (2002). Language expectancy theory. In DillardJ. P.PfauM. (Eds.), The handbook of persuasion: Developments in theory and practice (pp. 117-136). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
10.
BurgoonM.MillerG. R. (1971). Prior attitude and language intensity as predictors of message style and attitude change following counterattitudinal advocacy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 20, 246-253.
11.
CampoS.CameronK. A.BrossardD.FrazerS. M. (2004). Social norms and expectancy violation theories: Assessing the effectiveness of health communication campaigns. Communication Monographs, 71, 448-470.
12.
DeCremerD.SedikidesC. (2008). Reputational implications of procedural fairness for personal and relational self-esteem. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30, 66-75.
13.
DoughertyT. W.TurbanD. B.CallenderJ. C. (1994). Confirming first impressions in the employment interview: A field study of interviewer behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 659-665.
14.
EronduE.SharlandA. (2002). Managerial competence in Nigerian firms: An empirical and comparative analysis. Multinational Business Review, 10(2), 129-138.
15.
FedorD. B.DavisW. D.MaslynJ. M.MathiesonK. (2001). Performance improvement efforts in response to negative feedback: The roles of source power and recipient self-esteem. Journal of Management, 27, 79-97.
16.
FerrisG. R.BlassR.DouglasC.KolodinskyR. W.TreadwayD. C. (2003). Personal reputation in organizations. In GreenbergJ. (Ed.), Organizational behavior: The state of the science (2nd ed., pp. 211-246). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
17.
FerrisG. R.HochwarterW. A.DouglasC.BlassR.KolodinskyR. W.TreadwayD. C. (2002). Social influence processes in organizations and human resources systems. In FerrisG. R.MartocchioJ. J. (Eds.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 21, pp. 65-127). Oxford, UK: JAI/Elsevier Science.
18.
FerrisG. R.PerreweP. L.RanftA. L.ZinkoR.StonerJ. S.BrouerR. L.LairdM. D. (2007). Human resources reputation and effectiveness. Human Resource Management Review, 17, 117-130.
19.
FiskeS. T.LinM. H.NeubergS. L. (1999). The continuum model: Ten years later. In ChaikenS.TropeY. (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 231-254). New York, NY: Guilford.
20.
GarkoM. G. (1992). Persuading subordinates who communicate in attractive and unattractive styles. Management Communication Quarterly, 5, 289-315.
21.
GioiaD. A.SimsH. P. (1983). Perceptions of managerial power as a consequence of managerial behavior and reputation. Journal of Management, 9, 7-26.
22.
GoffmanE. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York, NY: Anchor.
23.
GraenG. B. (1976). Role-making processes within complex organizations. In DunnetteM. D. (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 143-165). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
24.
GraenG. B.CashmanJ. F. (1975). A role making model in formal organizations: A developmental approach. In HuntJ. G.LarsonL. L. (Eds.), Leadership frontiers (pp. 143-165). Kent, OH: Kent State Press.
25.
GraenG. B.Uhl-BienM. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219-247.
26.
GranthamS.VieiraE. T.Jr. (2008). The motivational roles of perceived task competence, need for achievement, and goal-setting on task intensity and involvement. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association, New York, NY.
27.
HarrisM. J.GarrisC. P. (2008). You never get a second chance to make a first impression: The role of first impressions in subsequent information processing and behavior. In AmbadyN.SkowronskiJ. (Eds.), First impressions (pp. 147-168). New York, NY: Guilford.
28.
HigginsC. A.JudgeT. A.FerrisG. A. (2003). Influence tactics and work outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 89-106.
29.
HochwarterW. A.FerrisG. R.ZinkoR.ArnellB.JamesM. (2007). Reputation as a moderator of political behavior–work outcomes relationships: A two-study investigation with convergent results. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 567-576.
30.
JablinF. M. (2001). Organizational entry, assimilation and disengagement/exit. In JablinF. M.PutnamL. L. (Eds.), The new handbook of organizational communication: Advances in theory, research, and methods (pp. 732-818). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
31.
KassingJ. W. (1997). Articulating, antagonizing, and displacing: A model of employee dissent. Communication Studies, 48, 311-332.
32.
KassingJ. W. (2001). From the looking of things: Assessing perceptions of organizational dissenters. Management Communication Quarterly, 14, 442-470.
33.
KassingJ. W. (2002). Speaking up: Identifying Employees’ Upward Dissent Strategies. Management Communication Quarterly, 16(2), 187-209.
34.
KassingJ. W. (2007). Breaking the chain of command: Making sense of employee circumvention. Journal of Business Communication, 46, 311-334.
35.
KassingJ. W.ArmstrongT. A. (2002). Someone is going to hear about this: Examining the association between dissent triggering events and employee dissent expressions. Management Communication Quarterly, 16(1), 39-65.
36.
KellermannK.ColeT. (1994). Classifying compliance gaining messages: Taxonomic disorder and strategic confusion. Communication Theory, 4(1), 3-60.
37.
KipnisD.SchmidtS. M. (1988). Upward-influence styles: Relationship with performance evaluations, salary, and stress. Administrative Science Quarterly, 33, 528-542.
38.
KipnisD.SchmidtS. M.WilkinsonI. (1980). Intra-organizational influence tactics: Explorations in getting one’s way. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 440-452.
39.
KlingeR. S. (1996). Physician communication as a motivational tool for long-term patient compliance: Reinforcement expectancy theory. Communication Studies, 47, 206-217.
40.
KroneK. J. (1992). Achieving communication goals in superior subordinate relationships: Upward influence maintenance tactics. Communication Quarterly, 40(1), 1-15.
41.
LairdM. D. (2008). The effects of strategically developed work relationships on personal reputation (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Department of Management, Florida State University, Tallahassee.
42.
O’KeefeD. J. (2003). Message properties, mediating states, and manipulation checks: Claims, evidence, and data analysis in experimental persuasive message effects research. Communication Theory, 13, 251-274.
43.
OlufowteJ. O.MillerV. D.WilsonS. R. (2005). The interactive effect of role change goals and relational exchanges on employee upward influence tactics. Management Communication Quarterly, 18, 385-403.
44.
OstromE. (2003). Toward a behavioral theory linking trust, reciprocity, and reputation. In OstromE.WalkerJ. (Eds.), Trust and reciprocity: Interdisciplinary lessons from experimental research (Vol. 6, pp. 19-79). New York, NY: Russell Sage.
45.
OstromT. M.LingleJ. H.PryorJ. B.GevaN. (1980). Cognitive organization of person impressions. In HastieR.OstromT. M.EbbesenE. B.WyerR. S.HamiltonD. L.CarlstonD. E. (Eds.), Person memory (pp. 58-83). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
46.
PorterL. W.AllenR. W.AngleH. L. (1981). The politics of upward influence in the organization. In CummingsL. L.StawB. M. (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 3, pp. 109-149). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
47.
RobothamD.JubbR. (1996). Competences: Measuring the immeasurable. Management Development Review, 9(5), 25-29.
48.
SandbergJ. (2000). Understanding human competence at work: An interpretive approach. Academy of Management Journal, 43(1), 9-25.
49.
SiegelJ. T.BurgoonJ. K. (2002). Expectancy theory approaches to prevention: Violating adolescent expectations to increase the effectiveness of public service announcements. In CranoW.C.BurgoonM. (Eds.), Mass media and drug prevention: Classic and contemporary theories and research (pp. 163-187). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
50.
StephensonJ. E.BrownC.GriffinD. K. (2006). Electronic delivery of lectures in the university environment: An empirical comparison of three delivery styles. Computers & Education, 50, 640-651.
51.
TaoC. C.BucyE. P. (2007). Conceptualizing media stimuli in experimental research: Psychological versus attribute-based definitions. Human Communication Research, 33, 397-426.
52.
ThackerR. A.WayneS. J. (1995). An examination of the relationship between upward influence tactics and assessments of promotability. Journal of Management, 21, 739-756.
53.
TsuiA. S. (1984). A role set analysis of managerial reputation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 64-96.
54.
WaldronV. R. (1999). Communication practices of followers, members, and proteges: The cause of upward influence tactics. In RoloffM. E. (Ed.), Communication yearbook (Vol. 22, pp. 251-299). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
55.
WayneS. J.LidenR. C.GrafI. K.FerrisG. (1997). The role of upward influence tactics in human resource decisions. Personnel Psychology, 50, 979-1006.
56.
WilsonS. R. (2002). Seeking and resisting compliance: Why people say what they do when trying to influence others. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
57.
YuklG.FalbeC. M. (1990). Influence tactics and objectives in upward, downward, and lateral influence attempts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(2), 132-140.
58.
YuklG.GuinanP. J.SottolanoD. (1995). Influence tactics used for different objectives with subordinates, peers, and superiors. Group and Organizational Management, 20, 272-296.
59.
YuklG.KimH.FalbeC. M. (1996). Antecedents of influence outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 309-317.
60.
YuklG.TraceyJ. B. (1992). Consequences of influence tactics used with subordinates, peers, and the boss. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 525-535.
61.
ZinkoR. (2007). Antecedents and consequences of personal reputation (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Department of Management, Florida State University, Tallahassee.
62.
ZinkoR.FerrisG. R.BlassF. R.LairdM. D. (2007). Toward a theory of reputation in organizations. In MartocchioJ. J. (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 26, pp. 169-209). Oxford, UK: JAI/Elsevier Science.
