Despite its acknowledged importance, performance appraisal (PA) continues to be one of the most persistent problems in organizations, especially the appraisal interview (AI) component of PA, for which many techniques have been attempted with only mixed success. The authors conceptualize the AI as a “conversation about performance” and draw on an extensive review of the communication literature to identify the discursive resources available to the organization, the appraiser, and the appraisee for improving the preparation for and conduct of a conversation about performance. The authors' conceptualization extends research on PAs by identifying methodologies and conceptual underpinnings with connections to interpersonal, organizational, and mass communication scholarship.
Argenti, P.F. (1998). Strategic employee communications. Human Resource Management, 37, 199-206.
2.
Bales, R.F. (1951). Interaction process analysis. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
3.
Barlow, G. (1989). Deficiencies and the perception of power: Latent functions in management appraisal. Journal of Management Studies , 26, 499-517.
4.
Baron, J.N., & Kreps, D.M. (1999). Strategic human resources: Frameworks for general managers. New York: John Wiley.
5.
Bartel, A.P. (2004). Human resource management and organizational performance: Evidence from retail banking. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 57, 181-203.
6.
Bastien, D.T., McPhee, R.D., & Boulton, K.A. (1995). A study and extended theory of the structuration of climate. Communication Monographs, 62, 87-109.
7.
Beer, M., Ruh, R., Dawson, J.A., McCaa, B.B., & Kavanagh, M.J. (1978). A performance measurement system: Research, design, introduction and evaluation. Personnel Psychology, 62, 422-427.
8.
Bernardin, H.J., Buckley, M.R., Tyler, C.L., & Wises, D.S. (2000). A reconsideration of strategies in rater training . In G. R. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 18, pp. 221-274). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
9.
Bostrom, R.N., & Bryant, C.L. (1980). Factors in the retention of information presented orally: The role of short-term listening. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 44, 137-145.
10.
Bretz, R.D., Milkovich, G.T., & Read, W. (1992). The current state of performance appraisal research and practice: Concerns, directions and implications. Journal of Management, 18, 321-352.
11.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S.C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
12.
Brownell, J. (1994). The performance appraisal interview: A multi-purpose communication assignment. Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication, 57(2), 11-21.
13.
Burke, R.J., Weitzel, W., & Weir, T. (1978). Characteristics of effective employee performance review and development interviews: Replication and extension. Personnel Psychology, 31, 903-919.
14.
Burke, R.J., & Wilcox, D.S. (1969). Effects of different patterns and degrees of openness in superior-subordinate communication on subordinate job satisfaction. Academy of Management Journal, 12, 319-326.
15.
Carberry, S. (1990). Plan recognition in natural language dialogue . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
16.
Chyi, H.I., & McCombs, M. (2004). Media salience and the process of framing: Coverage of the Columbine school shootings. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81, 22-35.
17.
Clark, H.H., & Marshall, C.R. (1981). Definite reference and mutual knowledge. In A. K. Joshi, B. Weber, & I. A. Sag (Eds.), Elements of discourse understanding (pp. 10-63). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
18.
Cushman, D.P., & Kincaid, D.L. (1987). Introduction and initial insights. In D. L. Kincaid (Ed.), Communication theory: Eastern and Western perspectives (pp. 1-10). New York: Academic Press.
19.
Daly, J.A., Vangelisti, A.L., & Weber, D.J. (1995). Speech anxiety affects how people prepare speeches: A protocol analysis of the preparation processes of speakers. Communication Monographs, 62, 383-397.
Deetz, S. (1990). Reclaiming the subject matter as a guide to mutual understanding: Effectiveness and ethics in interpersonal interaction. Communication Quarterly, 38, 226-243.
22.
Deetz, S., Tracy, S.J., & Simpson, J.L. (2000). Leading organizations through transition: Communication and cultural change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
23.
DeNisi, A.S., & Kluger, A.N. (2000). Feedback effectiveness: Can 360-degree appraisals be improved? Academy of Management Executive, 14(1), 129-139.
24.
Dickson, D. (2006). Reflecting. In O. Hargie (Ed.), Handbook of communication skills (3rd ed., pp. 165-194). London: Routledge.
25.
Dickson, D., & Hargie, O. (2006). Questioning. In O. Hargie (Ed.), Handbook of communication skills (3rd ed., pp. 121-145). London: Routledge.
26.
Dillard, J.P., & Marshall, L.J. (2003). Persuasion as a social skill. In J. O. Greene & B. R. Burleson (Eds.), Handbook of communication and social interaction skills (pp. 479-513). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
27.
Dipboye, R.L., & dePontbriand, R. (1981). Correlates of employee reactions to performance appraisals and appraisal systems. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 248-251.
28.
Downs, T.M. (1990). Predictors of communication satisfaction during performance appraisal interviews. Management Communication Quarterly, 3, 334-354.
29.
Drake, J.D. (1998). Performance appraisal: One more time. Menlo Park, CA: Crisp.
30.
Drewes, G., & Runde, B. (2002). Performance appraisal. In S. Sonnentag (Ed.), Psychological management of individual performance (pp. 137-154). New York: John Wiley.
31.
Eagly, A.H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
32.
Evans, L.M., & Petty, R.E. (2003). Self-guide framing and persuasion: Responsibly increasing message processing to ideal levels. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 313-324.
33.
Fisher, C.D., Schoenfeldt, L.F., & Shaw, J.B. (2006). Human resource management (6th ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin .
34.
Fletcher, C. (2001). Performance appraisal and management: The developing research agenda. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 74, 473-488.
35.
Fletcher, C. (2002). Appraisal: An individual psychological perspective . In S. Sonnentag (Ed.), Psychological management of individual performance (pp. 115-135). New York: John Wiley.
36.
Folger, R., Konovsky, M.A., & Cropanzano, R. (1992). A due process metaphor for performance appraisal. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 14, pp. 129-177). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
37.
Folger, R., & Lewis, D. (1993). Self-appraisal and fairness in evaluations. In R. Cropanzano (Ed.), Justice in the workplace (pp. 107-131). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
38.
Ford, J.D., & Ford, L.W. (1995). The role of conversations in producing intentional change in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 20, 541-570.
39.
Foster, P. (2002). Performance documentation. Business Communication Quarterly, 65(2), 108.
40.
Geddes, D., & Baron, R.A. (1997). Workplace aggression as a consequence of negative performance feedback. Management Communication Quarterly, 10, 433-454.
41.
Gibb, J.R. (1961). Defensive communication. Journal of Communication, 11(3), 141-148.
42.
Goodall, H.L., Jr., Wilson, G.L., & Waagen, C.L. (1986). The performance appraisal interview: An interpretive reassessment. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 72, 74-87.
43.
Goody, E.N. (1978). Toward a theory of questions. In E. N. Goody (Ed.), Questions and politeness: Strategies in social interaction (pp. 17-43). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
44.
Gordon, M.E. (2006). Are you sending the right signals? Communication World, 23(2), 30-34.
45.
Grainey, T.F., Pollack, D.R., & Kusmierek, L.A. (1984). How three Chicago newspapers covered the Washington-Epton campaign. Journalism Quarterly , 61, 352-363.
46.
Green, T.B., & Knippen, J.T. (1999). Breaking the barrier to upward communication. Westport, CT: Quorum.
47.
Greenberg, J. (1986). Organizational performance appraisal procedures: What makes them fair? In R. J. Lewicki, B. H. Sheppard, & M. H. Bazerman (Eds.), Research on negotiation in organizations (Vol. 1, pp. 25-41). Greenwich, CT : JAI.
48.
Greene, J.O., & Lindsey, A.E. (1989). Encoding processes in the production of multiple-goal messages. Human Communication Research, 16, 120-140.
49.
Greenspoon, J. (1955). The reinforcing effect of two spoken sounds on the frequency of two responses. American Journal of Psychology , 68, 409-416.
50.
Greller, M.M. (1975). Subordinate participation and reactions to the appraisal interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 544-549.
51.
Gross, K., & Aday, S. (2003). The scary world in your living room and neighborhood: Using local broadcast news, neighborhood crime rates, and personal experiences to test agenda setting and cultivation. Journal of Communication , 53, 411-426.
52.
Grote, D. (1996). The complete guide to performance appraisal. New York: American Management Association.
53.
Hargie, O. (2006). Skill in practice: An operational model of communicative performance. In O. Hargie (Ed.), Handbook of communication skills (3rd ed., pp. 37-70). London: Routledge.
54.
Harris, M.M., Smith, D.E., & Champagne, D. (1995). A field study of performance appraisal purpose: Research-versus administrative-based ratings. Personnel Psychology , 48, 151-160.
55.
Higgins, E.T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
56.
Hill, D.B. (1985). Viewer characteristics and agenda-setting by television news. Public Opinion Quarterly, 49, 340-350.
57.
Holbrook, R.L., Jr. (2002). Contact points and flash points: Conceptualizing the use of justice mechanisms in the performance appraisal interview. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 101-123.
58.
Hunt, G.T., & Cusella, L.P. (1983). A field study of listening needs in organizations . Communication Education, 32, 393-401.
59.
Huselid, M. (1995). The impact of human resource management practices in turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 635-672.
60.
Ilgen, D.R., Fisher, C.D., & Taylor, M.S. (1979). Consequences of individual feedback on behavior in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 349-371.
61.
Ilgen, D.R., & Knowlton, W.A. (1980). Performance attributional effects on feedback from supervisors. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 441-456.
62.
Iyengar, S. (1987). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
63.
Jablin, F.M., & Miller, V.D. (1990). Interviewer and applicant questioning behavior in employment interviews. Management Communication Quarterly , 4, 51-86.
64.
Jackman, J.M., & Strober, M.H. (2003). Fear of feedback. Harvard Business Review, 82(1), 101-107.
65.
Johnson, L.K. (2002). Does e-mail escalate conflict? MIT Sloan Management Review, 44(1), 14-15.
66.
Kahai, S.S., & Cooper, R.B. (2003). Exploring the core concepts of media richness theory: The impact of cue multiplicity and feedback immediacy on decision quality. Journal of Management Information Systems, 20, 263-299.
67.
Kavanagh, M.J. (1989). How'm I doin'? I have a need and a right to know . In C. A. B. Osigweh (Ed.), Managing employee rights and responsibilities (pp. 175-185). New York: Quorum.
68.
Kellerman, K., & Park, H.S. (2001). Situational urgency and conversational retreat: When politeness and efficiency matter. Communication Research , 28, 3-47.
69.
Kikoski, J.F. (1998). Effective communication in the performance appraisal interview: Face-to-face communication for public managers in the culturally diverse workplace. Public Personnel Management, 27, 491-513.
70.
Kikoski, J.F., & Litterer, J.A. (1983). Effective communication in the performance appraisal interview. Public Personnel Management Journal, 12, 33-42.
71.
Kivimäki, M., Hannakaisa, L., Elovaino, M., Heikkilä, A., Lindström, K., Harisalo, R., et al. (2000). Communication as a determinant of organizational innovation. R&D Management, 30, 33-42.
72.
Ku, G., Kaid, L.L., & Pfau, M. (2003). The impact of Web site campaigning on traditional news media and public information processing. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 80, 528-547.
73.
Kurtzberg, T.R., Belkin, L.Y., & Naquin, C.E. (2006). The effect of e-mail on attitudes towards performance feedback. International Journal of Organizational Analysis , 14, 4-21.
74.
Kurtzberg, T.R., Naquin, C.E., & Belkin, L.Y. (2005). Electronic performance appraisals: The effects of e-mail communication on peer ratings in actual and simulated environments . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 98, 216-226.
75.
Laird, A., & Clampitt, P.G. (1985). Effective performance appraisal: Viewpoints from managers. Journal of Business Communication , 22(3), 49-57.
76.
Lee, C. (1989). Poor performance appraisals do more harm than good. Personnel Journal, 68, 91-99.
77.
Lee, G.H. (2004). Reconciling "cognitive priming" vs. "obtrusive contingency" hypotheses: An analytical model of media agenda-setting effects . Gazette, 66, 151-166.
78.
Levinson, H. (2003). Management by whose objectives? Harvard Business Review, 82(1), 107-116.
79.
Levy, P.E., & Williams, J.R. (2004). The social context of performance appraisal: A review and framework for the future. Journal of Management, 30, 881-905.
80.
Lewicki, R.J., & Litterer, J.A. (1985). Negotiation. Homewood, IL: Irwin.
81.
Lewis, P.V. (1980). Organizational communication: The essence of effective management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
82.
Lindsey, A.E., Greene, J.O., Parker, R., & Sassi, M. (1995). Effects of advance message formulation on message encoding: Evidence of cognitively based hesitation in the production of multiple-goal messages. Communication Quarterly, 43, 320-331.
83.
London, M., & Smither, J.W. (2002). Feedback orientation, feedback culture, and the longitudinal performance management process. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 81-100.
84.
Longnecker, C.O., Sims, H.P., & Goia, D.A. (1987). Behind the mask: The politics of employee appraisal . Academy of Management Executive, 1, 183-193.
85.
Luthans, K.W., & Sommer, S.M. (2005). The impact of high performance work on industry-level outcomes. Journal of Management Issues, 17(3), 327-342.
86.
Macan, T.H., & Dipboye, R.L. (1990). The relationship of interviewers' preinterview impressions to selection and recruiting outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 43, 745-768.
87.
Maier, N.R.F. (1958). The performance appraisal. New York: John Wiley.
88.
Marshak, R.J. (1993). Managing the metaphors of change. Organizational Dynamics, 22, 44-56.
89.
Marshak, R.J., Keenoy, T., Oswick, C., & Grant, D. (2000). From outer words to inner worlds. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 36, 245-258.
90.
Mavis, M. (1994). Painless performance evaluations. Training and Development, 48(10), 40-48.
91.
Max, D., & Bacal, R. (2003). Perfect phrases for performance reviews. New York: McGraw-Hill.
92.
McCombs, M., & Bell, T. (1996). The agenda-setting role of mass communication . In M. B. Salwen & D. W. Stacks (Eds.), An integrated approach to communication theory and research (pp. 93-110). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
93.
Meyer, H.H. (1991). A solution to the performance appraisal feedback enigma. Academy of Management Executive, 5(1), 68-76.
94.
Meyer, H.H., Kay, E., & French, J.R.P. , Jr. (1965). Split roles in performance appraisal. Harvard Business Review , 43(1), 123-129.
95.
Miller, G.A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
96.
Mohrman, A.M., Resnick-West, S.M., & Lawler, E.E. (1989). Designing performance appraisal systems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Nadesan, M.H. (2001). Fortune on globalization and the new economy. Management Communication Quarterly, 14, 498-506.
99.
Neal, J.E., Jr. (2003). Effective phrases for performance appraisal (10th ed.). Perrysburg, OH: Neal.
100.
Neck, C.P., Stewart, G.L., & Manz, C.C. (1995). Thought self-leadership as a framework for enhancing the performance of performance appraisers. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 31, 278-302.
101.
Norris-Watts, C., & Levy, P.E. (2004). The mediating role of affective commitment in the relation of the feedback environment to work outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 351-365.
102.
Orey, M. (2007, April 23). Fear of firing. Business Week, pp. 52-62.
103.
Painter, C.N. (1994). Ten steps for improved appraisals. Supervision, 55(10), 3-9.
104.
Papa, M.J. (1989). A comparison of two methods of managerial selection . Management Communication Quarterly, 3, 191-218.
105.
Peiperi, M.A. (2001). Getting 360° feedback right. Harvard Business Review, 79(1), 142-147.
106.
Peräkylä, A., & Vehviläinen, S. (2003). Conversation analysis and the professional stocks of interactional knowledge. Discourse & Society, 14, 727-750.
107.
Planalp, S. (1993). Friends' and acquaintances' conversations II: Coded differences. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 10, 339-354.
108.
Pridham, F. (2001). The language of conversation. London: Routledge.
109.
Ralph, E. (1999). Oral-questioning skills of novice teachers: . . . Any questions? Journal of Instructional Psychology, 26, 63-83.
110.
Redding, W.C. (1972). Communication within the organization: An interpretive review of theory and research. New York: Industrial Communication Council.
111.
Risher, H., & Fay, C.H. (2007). Managing for better performance: Enhancing federal performance management practices. Washington, DC: IBM Center for the Business of Government.
112.
Rogers, C.R., & Roethlisberger, F.J. (1952). Barriers and gateways to communication. Harvard Business Review, 30(4), 28-34.
113.
Russ, G.S., Daft, R.L., & Lengel, R.H. (1990). Media selection and managerial characteristics in organizational communications. Management Communication Quarterly, 4, 151-175.
114.
Salwen, M.B. (1988). Effect of accumulation of coverage on issue salience in agenda setting. Journalism Quarterly, 65, 100-106.
115.
Schellhardt, T.D. (1996, November 19). It's time to evaluate your work, and all involved are groaning. Wall Street Journal, pp. A1, A10.
116.
Schneider, B. (2000). Managers as evaluators: Invoking objectivity to achieve objectives. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science , 36, 159-173.
117.
Shober, M.F., & Clark, H.H. (1989). Understanding by addresses and overhearers. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 211-232.
118.
Smither, J.W., London, M., & Reilly, R.R. (2005). Does performance improve following multisource feedback? A theoretical model, meta-analysis, and review of empirical findings . Personnel Psychology, 58, 33-66.
119.
Snyder, R.A., & Morris, J.H. (1984). Organizational communication and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 461-465.
120.
Spencer, L.M. (1995). Reengineering human resources. New York: John Wiley.
121.
Steelman, L.A., Levy, P.A., & Snell, A.F. (2004). The Feedback Environment Scale: Construct definition, measurement, and validation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64, 165-184.
122.
Stephen, A., & Roithmayr, T. (1998). Escaping the performance management trap. In M. Butteriss (Ed.), Re-inventing HR: Changing roles to create the high-performance organization (pp. 229-248). New York: John Wiley.
123.
Tourish, D. (2006). The appraisal interview reappraised. In O. Hargie (Ed.), Handbook of communication skills (3rd ed., pp. 505-530). London: Routledge.
124.
Townley, B. (1993). Performance appraisal and the emergence of management . Journal of Management Studies, 30, 221-238.
125.
Tracy, S.J. (2002). When questioning turns to face threat: An interactional sensitivity in 911 call-taking. Western Journal of Communication , 66, 129-157.
126.
Tsfati, Y. (2003). Does audience skepticism of the media matter in agenda setting? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 47, 157-176.
127.
Tyler, K. (2005). Performance art. HRMagazine, 50(8), 58.
128.
Verplanck, W.S. (1955). The control of the content of conversation: Reinforcement of statements of opinion. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 51, 668-676.
129.
Waldman, D.A., Atwater, L.E., & Antonioni, D. (1998). Has 360-degree feedback gone amok? Academy of Management Executive, 12(2), 86-94.
130.
Waldron, V.R., & Applegate, J.L. (1994). Interpersonal construct differentiation and conversational planning: An examination of two cognitive accounts for the production of competent verbal disagreement tactics. Human Communication Research, 21, 3-35.
131.
Waldron, V.R., & Lavitt, M. (2000). Welfare-to-work: Assessing communication competencies and client outcomes in a job-training program. Human Communication Research, 18, 599-622.
132.
Wanta, W., & Wu, Y.C. (1992). Interpersonal communication and the agenda-setting process. Journalism Quarterly, 69, 847-849.
133.
Watson, T. (1995). Rhetoric, discourse, and argument in organizational sense making: A reflexive tale. Organizational Studies, 16, 805-821.
134.
Weaver, D.H. (1977). Political issues and voters need for orientation . In D. L. Shaw & M. E. McCombs (Eds.), The emergence of American political issues: The agenda-setting function of the press (pp. 107-120). St. Paul, MN: West.
135.
Weber, K., Martin, M.M., & Cayanus, J.L. (2005). Student interest: A two-study re-examination of the concept. Communication Quarterly, 53, 71-86.
136.
Westerman, J.W., & Rosse, J.G. (1997). Reducing the threat of rater participation in 360-degree feedback systems. Group & Organization Management , 22, 288-309.
137.
Wexley, K.N., & Latham, G.P. (1982). Developing and training human resources. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
138.
Wilkes-Gibbs, D., & Clark, H.H. (1992). Coordinating beliefs in conversation. Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 183-194.
139.
Winter, J.P., & Eyal, C.H. (1981). Agenda-setting for the civil rights issue. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45, 376-383.
140.
Zhu, J. (1992). Issue competition and attention distraction: A zero-sum theory of agenda-setting. Journalism Quarterly, 69, 825-836.
