This study investigated factors that influence managers’ conceptions and subordinates’ perceptions of effective feedback. A social rules perspective was used to operationalize male and female managers’ conceptions of effective negative feedback. In the first study, 68 male and female managers identified their optimal strategies for providing feedback to subordinates. Male and female managers endorsed different goals and tactics for giving negative feedback, particularly in terms of levels of participation and directness. In the second study, 116 male and female subordinates evaluated the comparative effectiveness and difficulty of these and other standard approaches to feedback. The female manager strategy was evaluated by both men and women as generally more task and relationship effective but not more difficult to enact.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Anderson, G. C. (1993). Managing performance appraisal systems. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
2.
Aquinis, H., Nesler, M. S., Hosda, M., & Tedeschi, J. T. (1994). The use of influence tactics in persuasion. Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 429-438.
3.
Argyle, M. (1983). The psychology of interpersonal behaviour (4th ed.). New York: Penguin.
4.
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1974). Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
5.
Augoustinos, M., & Walker, I. (1995). Social cognition: An integrated introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
6.
Baker, M. A. (1991). Gender and verbal communication in professional settings: A review of research. Management Communication Quarterly, 5, 36-63.
7.
Baldwin, M., & Sinclair, L. (1996). Self-esteem and “if … then” contingencies of interpersonal acceptance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1130-1141.
8.
Baron, R. A. (1988). Negative effects of destructive criticism: Impact on conflict, self-efficacy, and task performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 199-207.
9.
Baron, R. A. (1993). Criticism (informal negative feedback) as a source of perceived unfairness in organizations: Effects, mechanisms, and countermeasures. In R. Cropanzano (Ed.), Justice in the workplace: Approaching fairness in human resource management (pp. 155-170). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
10.
Barry, B., & Shapiro, D. L. (1992). Influence tactics in combination: The interactive effects of soft versus hard tactics and rational exchange. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1429-1441.
11.
Berger, C. R. (1997). Planning strategic interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
12.
Blum, T. C., Fields, D. L., & Goodman, J. S. (1994). Organization-level determinants of women in management. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 241-268.
13.
Brewer, N., Socha, L., & Potter, R. (1996). Gender differences in supervisors’ use of performance feedback. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 786-803.
14.
Bruner, E. M. (1986). Structures for learning competence. In V. W. Turner & E. M. Bruner (Eds.), The anthropology of experience (pp. 139-155). Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
15.
Butler, R. (1987). Task-involving and ego-involving properties of evaluation: Effects of different feedback conditions on motivational perceptions, interest and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 474-482.
16.
Carli, L. L. (1989). Gender differences in interaction style and influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 565-576.
17.
Carli, L. L. (1990). Gender, language, and influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 941-951.
18.
Carothers, B. J., & Allen, J. B. (1999). Relationships of employment status, gender role, insult, and gender with the use of influence tactics. Sex Roles, 41, 375-386.
19.
Cawley, B. D., Keeping, L. M., & Levy, P. E. (1998). Participation in the performance appraisal process and employee reactions: A meta-analytic review of field investigations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 615-633.
20.
Clark, R. A., & Delia, J. (1979). Topoi and rhetorical competence. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 65, 187-206.
21.
Cohen, J. (1960). A co-efficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37-45.
22.
Davies, D., & Jacobs, A. (1985). “Sandwiching” complex interpersonal feedback. Small Group Behavior, 16, 387-396.
23.
DeNisi, A. S., & Kluger, A. N. (2000). Feedback effectiveness: Can 360-degree appraisals be improved? Academy of Management Executive, 14, 129-139.
24.
Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 233-256.
25.
Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T. (1996). Gender and leadership style: A meta analysis. In R. M. Steers, L. W. Porter, & G. A. Bigley (Eds.), Motivation and leadership at work (pp. 315-345). New York: McGraw-Hill.
26.
Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., & Klonsky, B. G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 3-22.
27.
Falbo, T., & Peplau, L. A. (1980). Power strategies in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 618-628.
28.
Frese, M., & Zapf, D. (1994). Action as the core of work psychology: A German approach. In H. C. Triandis, M. D. Dunette, & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 4, 2nd ed., pp. 271-340). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
29.
Geddes, D., & Baron, R. A. (1997). Workplace aggression as a consequence of negative performance feedback. Management Communication Quarterly, 10, 433-454.
30.
Geddes, D., & Lineham, F. (1996). Exploring the dimensionality of positive and negative performance feedback. Communication Quarterly, 44, 326-344.
31.
Greene, J. O. (1990). Tactical social action: Towards some strategies for theory. In M. J. Cody & M. L. McLaughlin (Eds.), The psychology of tactical communication (pp. 31-47). Clavedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
32.
Gruber, K. J., & White, J. W. (1988). Gender differences in the perception of self and others’ use of influence strategies. Sex Roles, 15, 107-119.
33.
Gutek, B. A., & Morasch, B. (1982). Sex-rations, sex-role spillover, and sexual harassment of women at work. Journal of Social Issues, 38, 55-74.
34.
Ilgen, D. R., Fisher, C. D., & Taylor, M. S. (1979). Consequences of individual feedback on behavior in organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 64, 349-371.
35.
Johnson, C., & Ford, R. (1993). Dependence, power, legitimacy and tactical choice. Social Psychology Quarterly, 59, 126-139.
36.
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 254-284.
37.
Larson, J. R., Jr. (1986). Supervisors’ performance feedback to subordinates: The impact of subordinate performance valence and outcome dependence. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37, 391-408.
38.
Larson, J. R., Glynn, M. A., Fleenor, C. P., & Scontrino, M. P. (1986). Exploring the dimensionality of managers’ performance feedback to subordinates. Human Relations, 39, 1083-1102.
39.
Latting, J. K. (1992). Giving corrective feedback: A decisional analysis. Social Work, 37, 424-430.
40.
Liden, R. C., & Mitchell, T. R. (1985). Reactions to feedback: The role of attributions. Academy of Management Journal, 28, 291-308.
41.
Lineham, M. M., & Egan, K. (1979). Assertion training for women. In A. G. Bellack & M. Hersen (Eds.), Research and practice in social skills training (pp. 237-271). New York: Plenum.
42.
Lizzio, A. J., Wilson, K. L., & Gallois, C. (1993). Training assertive communication in its social context. In K. L. Wilson & C. Gallois (Eds.), The social context of assertion (pp. 155-169). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
43.
Lucas, J. W., & Lovaglia, M. J. (1998). Leadership, status, gender, group size, and emotion in face-to-face groups. Sociological Perspectives, 41, 617-637.
44.
Maniero, L. A., & Tromley, C. L. (1993). Developing managerial skills in organizational behavior: Exercises, cases and readings (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
45.
Newton, D. A., & Burgoon, J. G. (1990). The use and consequences of verbal influence strategies during interpersonal disagreements. Human Communication Research, 16, 477-518.
46.
Noller, P., & Fitzpatrick, M. A. (Eds.). (1988). Perspectives on marital communication. Clavedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
47.
Offerman, L. R., & Schrier, P. E. (1985). Social influence strategies: The impact of sex role, and attitudes toward power. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 286-300.
48.
Ohlsson, S. (1996). Learning from performance errors. Psychological Review, 103, 141-262.
49.
Pearce, J. L., & Porter, L. W. (1986). Employee responses to formal performance appraisal feedback. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 211-218.
50.
Pleck, J. H. (1995). The gender role strain paradigm: An update. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 11-32). New York: Basic Books.
51.
Pruitt, D. G. (1995). Process and outcomes in community mediation. Negotiation Journal, 11, 365-377.
52.
Pruitt, D. G. (1998). Social conflict. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, 2nd ed., pp. 470-503). New York: McGraw-Hill.
53.
Rakos, R. F. (1991). Assertive behavior: Theory, research and training. London: Routledge.
54.
Sagrestano, L. M. (1992). Power strategies in interpersonal relationships: The effects of expertise and gender. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 16, 481-495.
55.
Schank, R., & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
56.
Smythe, M., & Wine, D. (1980). A comparison of female and male adolescents’ social behaviours and cognitions: A challenge to the assertiveness literature. Sex Roles, 6, 213-230.
57.
Snyder, M., & Ickes, W. (1985). Personality and social behavior. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, 3rd ed., pp. 883-947). New York: Random House.
58.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics (2nd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
59.
Trower, P., Bryant, B., & Argyle, M. (1978). Social skills and mental health. London: Methuen.
60.
Veiga, J. F. (1988). Face your problem subordinates now! Academy of Management Executive, 2, 145-152.
61.
Wagner, D. G., & Berger, J. (1997). Genders and interpersonal task behaviors: Status expectation accounts. Sociological Perspectives, 40, 1-32.
62.
Wilson, K. L., & Gallois, C. (1985). Perceptions of assertive behavior: Sex combination, role appropriateness and message type. Sex Roles, 12, 125-141.
63.
Wilson, K. L., & Gallois, C. (1993). Assertion and its social context. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
64.
Wilson, K. L., Lizzio, A., Whicker, L., Gallois, C., & Price, J. (in press). Effective assertive behavior in the workplace: Responding to unfair criticism. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.
65.
Wilson, K. L., Lizzio, A., Zauner, S., & Gallois, C. (2001). Social rules for managing attempted interpersonal dominance in the workplace: Influence of status and gender. Sex Roles, 44, 129-154.
