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Abstract

This article seeks to understand the extent to which rural schools in isolated Andalusia approach the meaning and functioning of professional learning communities (PLCs), focusing on collaborative leadership, shared pedagogical practices and active community participation in the construction and development of a shared improvement project. He argues that the PCL model is a good response in contexts of geographical isolation and teacher instability because it fosters networks of interrelation around a shared purpose that is sustainable over time, with an impact on improving learning. A case study was carried out, focusing on three schools in the region of the Comarca de Las Villas. Data were collected through interviews, field notes, and document analysis, followed by emergent coding and thematic analysis to identify commonalities and differences in the degree of development of PLC dimensions across schools and, consequently, an understanding of the extent to which they align with the PLC model and which factors need further development. The findings reveal that the rural schools under study have clear leadership, are progressing around a shared purpose of improvement, and foster connections with their local communities to address challenges arising from their isolated locations. All schools display at varying levels of development the key dimensions of a PLC, including learning-oriented leadership, establishing a shared purpose that addresses local challenges, and efforts to increase social and professional capital through community engagement. However, the evidence does not consistently support that they operate as full PLCs. Factors such as geographic isolation and high teacher turnover contribute to the instability of collaborative practices and inhibit a sustainable, unified sense of purpose for improvement. Each school shows unique improvement strategies and is at a different stage of development, with different levels of impact from factors such as teachers’ social engagement, relational trust, and community connections. These actions represent a local response to the barriers faced by isolated rural environments, such as high teacher turnover, cultural isolation from the school, and limited access to technological resources.

Keywords

professional learning communities leadership professional capital quality of education rural school

Introduction

One of the most significant challenges teachers currently face is ensuring quality education for all students, particularly those from vulnerable backgrounds (Arcaro, 2024). Isolated rural contexts create additional vulnerabilities, including high teacher turnover, complicating efforts to achieve equitable educational success for all students. Research has identified socioeconomic status as the primary predictor of academic failure, with other factors such as geographic isolation and loss of social capital complicating these challenges, particularly pronounced in sparsely populated rural areas known as “empty Spain.”

In these contexts, challenges are both quantitative, related to the availability of resources, and qualitative, addressing the quality of education, including pedagogical practices and school leadership, involving the availability of educational programs and their alignment with the specific needs of rural communities (Santana and Barrero, 2021). Geographic isolation and resource limitations directly impact the accessibility and quality of education, highlighting the necessity for educational models responsive to these unique conditions. Given the impact of location and poverty on rural education, there is a growing need to prioritize meaningful learning strategies tailored to rural students’ realities (Caballero, 2023).

Improving learning outcomes in this complex and challenging environment requires emphasizing well-established practices: fostering leadership, adopting a more inclusive and flexible approach, addressing challenges through “interactive professionalism” (Hargreaves and O’Connor, 2018), building a shared purpose between school and community, and enhancing the professional capital of the school (Hargreaves and Fullan, 2012, 2020). However, as indicated by the TALIS 2018 study (González, 2020) and other studies related to the Andalusian context (Domingo et al., 2024), these practices are not yet widespread in Spain, both in leadership and the development of professional collaboration in practice. In challenging contexts, there are some promising initiatives that, without being PLCs themselves, are providing themselves with organizational conditions and facilitating structures (Gray et al., 2016), have increased their perception as a community (De Jong et al., 2021) and have significant advances in the dimensions that characterizee them as such, which are worth identifying and contextualizing.

The relevance of this study lies in exploring the rural context to determine to what extent these schools develop shared cultures of thought, feeling, action, and beliefs (Hargreaves and O’Connor, 2018), capable of collectively and co-responsibly addressing their problems and challenges, learning from them. Focusing on an isolated rural region of Andalusia, where schools are working to maintain and improve learning outcomes, this research aims to assess the degree to which schools in this region are advancing in line with the dimensions, practices, and approaches of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) (Admiraal et al., 2021; Bolívar and Domingo, 2024; De Jong et al., 2021; Dufour and Eaker, 2008; Stoll and Kools, 2017; Stoll and Louis, 2007). They can be a valuable resource that supports sustainable collective initiatives for community development, social inclusion, and educational improvement in specific rural schools.

The study identifies commonalities and unique characteristics in all cases to highlight effective practices, specific challenges, and ways to better support educators in these communities. In this context, we pose the following research questions:

To what extent do the Andalusian rural schools studied (from a cross-sectional analysis) address the key dimensions of the Professional Learning Communities in response to their contextual challenges?

How do these dimensions manifest themselves (from a vertical analysis by cases) in a differential and contingent way in isolated rural environments?

Literature review

Challenging contexts and social transformation

The impact of challenging contexts on education is complex, with external factors playing an important role in school improvement (Harris et al., 2006). Schools in areas with low socioeconomic and cultural indices face unique challenges (Harris, 2010), which necessitate adapting professional policies and practices to align with the specific realities of these settings (Reynolds et al., 2006).

The term “challenging contexts” refers to schools and communities in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas where certain barriers hinder educational quality and accessibility (Sowton, 2021). Addressing these barriers requires a deep understanding of the communities’ unique needs to implement effective educational practices. From an inclusive education and social justice perspective, these challenges demand professional, cultural, and community responses that are context-sensitive and sustainable over time (Ainscow, 2020).

Learning improvement: a shared community project

Improving learning outcomes in vulnerable contexts requires more than just teachers’ efforts; it demands a community-driven approach (Khalil and Ebner, 2015). Responses to these challenges must extend beyond the school itself to address the complexity of the situation collaboratively. Research has shown that schools actively engaged with their communities can transform the realities of their environments (López and Sánchez, 2021), and leadership plays a pivotal role in this transformation (Otero, 2019). Although some studies, such as Armstrong et al., suggest that the effects of collaboration on student outcomes are not conclusive, other research highlights significant benefits in specific contexts, justifying a more detailed exploration of this phenomenon in Andalusian rural schools

Interrelationship networks also serve as vital tools in addressing these challenges, both within the school (Hargreaves and O’Connor, 2018) and between the school its community (Longás and Civís, 2019). This term refer to structured and strategic connections among educators, administrators, students, and the community, facilitating the exchange of resources, knowledge, and mutual support. In education, the concept of “community” involves support networks among teachers, administrators, students, and families, all working toward the common goal of improving learning outcomes (López and Sánchez, 2021). The term “community” in organizational studies encompasses not only support networks but also power dynamics, conflicts, and differences in incentives and constraints among its members. Such collaboration helps to address barriers like limited resources and economic instability. In rural contexts especially, building robust educational communities is crucial for enhancing educational quality in the face of geographical isolation and limited resources.

Challenging contexts, as advocated by normative guidelines, require projects and practices that promote professional learning environments, with organizational structures that support regular collaboration, professional dialogue, and collective reflection on educational practice, essential for sustainable pedagogical development. A good answer would be professional learning communities (PLCs), which promote structured collaboration, fostering the exchange of teaching practices and adopting new methodologies, using reflection, and collective learning to enhance teaching effectiveness and student performance (De Jong et al., 2021). The adaptability and responsiveness of these communities are essential for addressing today's evolving challenges and meeting the needs of complex contexts (Dufour et al., 2006). This adaptability is particularly important to support educational equity in a localized way, promote collaboration among teachers, connect with the community, and link schools and institutions focused on shared improvement goals. Through PLCs, resources, social capital, and professional practices are shared and adapted to the future needs of students (Vescio et al., 2008).

Characterization of professional learning communities (PLCs)

PLCs are groups of educators who collaborate consistently and systematically to enhance teaching practices and student achievement. According to Dufour et al. (2006), PLCs are built on three core pillars:

Ensuring students learn: PLCs prioritize ensuring that all students learn. This involves collaboratively identifying learning objectives, developing formative assessments, and analyzing data to improve educational outcomes (Stoll and Louis, 2007).

Creating a culture of Collaboration and Professional Interconnection: Collaboration in PLCs extends beyond teachers to include other stakeholders and the broader community (Bolívar and Domingo, 2024). This culture is grounded in reflection, professional dialogue, and continuous learning to improve student learning (Admiraal et al., 2021; Hargreaves and O’Connor, 2018).

Focusing on results: PLCs focus on enhancing educational outcomes by analyzing evidence to ensure that their collaborative efforts lead to measurable improvements (Vescio et al., 2008).

The concept of PLCs has evolved, now encompassing more complex and inclusive approaches. It goes beyond shared purposes, structures, and collaborative practices, integrating perspectives that emphasize learning for and among all, openness to the community, and networked collaboration. Table 1 presents a synthesis of the key characteristics and dimensions of a PLC (Admiraal et al., 2021; Bolívar and Domingo, 2024; De Jong et al., 2021; Huffman and Hipp, 2003; Stoll and Kools, 2017; Stoll and Louis, 2007) (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Key characteristics and dimensions of PLC.

Dimension	Description
Leadership for learning	Emphasizes a pedagogical rather than administrative focus. Leadership is democratic, encouraging teachers to take on leadership roles.
Shared vision, values and purpose	A common understanding exists of the desired school identity and its purpose, shared by all members.
Collective learning	Teachers collaborate by sharing information and resources, engaging in professional dialogue, and jointly seeking knowledge, skills, and solutions to challenges.
Interactive professional practice	Educators work together on planning, curriculum development, methodology, and evaluation to enhance professional practice.
Mutual support	Teachers and leaders operate in a culture of trust and support, with structures in place to reinforce collaborative efforts.
Organizational conditions	Schools, on their own or with external support, develop and fill with content an environment conducive to collaboration and continuous professional learning. Relating to spaces, times and tasks that facilitate the construction of a shared purpose, joint decision-making and professional collaboration, mutual support and joint learning. This means going beyond formal and institutionalized team meetings, largely colonizing and emptied of content in practice, for others that are more dynamic and contingent.
Social capital and networking	Involves building relationships with families, the community, and external institutions and professionals to support educational goals.

Source: Authors’ own.

Andalusian schools as professional learning communities (PLCs)

PLCs offer a promising solution for enhancing education in challenging contexts. By promoting collaboration among teachers and continuous learning, PLCs not only improve pedagogical practice but also transform the educational culture, helping students acquire essential skills to face future challenges (INEE, 2020; Mourshed, Chijioke and Barber, 2009). These conditions enable PLCs to foster innovation and improve learning outcomes for all. However, despite this potential, the institutionalization of PLCs in Andalusia remains limited, with ongoing progress but significant obstacles to effective implementation, particularly in areas like school leadership and fostering a collaborative teacher culture (Bellibas, Bulut and Gedik, 2017; Bolívar and Bolívar-Ruano, 2016). It is then interesting to see if in our schools, especially in vulnerable contexts due to isolation, there are facilitating conditions (organizational structures, leadership and project) such as understanding the degree of progress as a community (both in collaboration, interrelation and involvement around a shared purpose) in the dimensions that define a PCL (see Table 1, together with the nuances and contingencies emerging from the reports themselves)

Studies conducted in Andalusia (Domingo et al., 2024) reveal a reality similar to that of other Mediterranean countries, where professional community and collegiality among teachers remain limited. Although there is a positive perception of leadership and teacher collaboration, cultural barriers hinder the establishment of sustainable collaborative practices rooted in school culture that positively impact educational outcomes (Bolívar, 2019; INEE, 2020). Key barriers include a lack of time for collaboration, inadequate school leadership, and weak evaluation policies (Moral, Amores and Ritacco, 2016). Additionally, tendencies toward professional individualism and limited school preparedness reduce opportunities to create environments conducive to collaborative learning (Bolívar, 2020).

Progress towards collective learning has been driven by grassroots and governmental initiatives in Andalusia, urging progress in line with learning communities (Cantero and Pantoja, 2016; Valls et al., 2014; Fernández-Terol and Domingo, in press). The COVID-19 pandemic has further exposed the system's vulnerabilities—particularly in schools lacking agency and community capacity—and alerted us to important lessons in leadership, interactive professionalism, and community engagement (Bolívar et al., 2022). Although collaborative work is generally valued, it remains uncertain whether the necessary structures and conditions to sustain shared professional practices are firmly in place (Hargreaves and Fullan, 2020). To address these challenges, fostering intermediate leadership is essential to mobilize social and professional capital, promote a unified educational project that meets the needs of all students, and strengthen collaboration both within and across schools.

Methodology

Method and design

This research examines the degree of presence, development, and sustainability of the dimensions of a PLC through a case study conducted in a rural educational district, focusing on three specific educational schools. Rather than aiming to generalize its findings, the study seeks to understand the unique circumstances of each case. This approach allows for an in-depth exploration of the complex dynamics between events and human factors within each school. The multiple case study design provides a detailed view of the situations, uncovering nuances and relationships that may not be captured through numerical analysis alone. Prioritizing processes over outcomes allows for deeper insights and a richer understanding of meaning. The selection of multiple (maximum variability among them) within the same educational context, … (seeking maximum variability among them) cases within the same educational context (in the region of Las Villas, as a case), and from an ethnographic, (auto)biographical, and non-colonizing participatory-dialogic immersion to enhance the validity and robustness of the findings, offering a comparative and comprehensive perspective on the phenomena under investigation.

Sample: overview and rationale

The study focuses on the Las Villas region, located in the eastern part of the Jaén province in Andalusia. This area is rich in natural resources, including part of the Natural Park of the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura, and Las Villas. The local economy is primarily driven by olive cultivation and oil production. However, the region faces demographic challenges, characterized by an ageing and declining population, reflecting the broader demographic and economic regression typical of rural areas in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula. Additionally, the region lacks active rail networks and modern transportation infrastructure, limiting its connectivity. As such, it serves as a representative case of a rural school environment. Three regional schools were selected, ensuring maximum differentiation to provide a comprehensive view of the area. As shown in Table 2, the selection of cases was based on the following criteria:

Table 2.

Criteria for case selection.

Criteria	School A	School B	School C
Challenging context (low ISCI, risk of exclusion)	High immigration, cultural and linguistic challenges	Isolated location, low population	Functional diversity, financial constraints
Shared community purpose	Promotes academic and social integration	Mitigate frequent faculty turnover	Social inclusion

Key informants were selected from the three schools (see Table 3). In all cases, these are leaders and teachers and other professionals who have professional experience and in-depth knowledge of the school under study. Leadership positions in these schools are predominantly held by women who are deeply connected to the local context. Furthermore, the snowball sampling method used to identify additional key informants led to the selection of these individuals, as they were particularly receptive to discussing social and community-related issues.

Table 3.

Characteristics of school participants.

School	Interviewees	Gender	Role at the school	Years at the school	Professional experience
A	Rosario (2)	Female	Principal	22	31
	Lola (1)	Female	Head of studies	20	23
	Teresa (1)	Female	Grade-level coordinator	22	25
B	Amparo (2)	Female	Principal	10	17
B	María José (2)	Female	Teacher	9	16
C	Toñi (2)	Female	Principal	28	30
	Maria Angela (1)	Female	Monitor	14	19
	Martin (1)	Male	Monitor	18	20

Note: Age was not provided, as it was left to the discretion of the interviewees.

Source: Authors’ own.

Information collection and analysis

Figure 1 summarizes the phases, procedures, and instruments used in the study.

Figure 1.

Phases, procedures, and instruments. Source: Authors’ own.

Participants from each school were intentionally selected to gather relevant and valuable information to address our research questions . An initial contact with all the schools in the Villas was used to select the three experiences that showed the greatest variability of scenarios with significant approaches to the development of shared practices within the schools and between them and their community. In the first phase, we established contact with schools, prioritizing commitment, ethics, and mutual trust.

For data collection, in-depth interviews, field notes, and documentation from schools (such as research and improvement plans) were used. The voices of the participants were captured through reflective deepening, which included cycles of in-depth (auto)biographical interviews to all key informants (to arrive at practical knowledge and experience in that school), dialogic debate with them (to complete and validate arguments and reasons), and participant observation (to locate and capture another series of dimensions). With all this, it was possible to obtain a rich and multidimensional understanding of the educational environment, dialectically validated with the key informants, which allowed a nuanced response to the research questions. A common semi-structured protocol from interviews (to gather relevant information regarding the dimensions under study), with flexibility to adapt and capture emerging themes or perspectives in each case, in order to address both the overall status of these schools as PLCs (Question 1) and the specific characteristics of each educational center (Question 2). Each interview lasted between 30 and 90 min.

Data collection and analysis were conducted in strict adherence to the ethical guidelines outlined in the Code of Good Practice of the University of Granada (honesty, responsibility, and rigor), as well as the specific research agreements between the University of Granada and the educational administration of Andalusia.

For the ongoing dialectical validation process, cartographies were used as a tool for deepening and validation. The use of cartographies facilitated continuous dialogue with participants, creating a co-constructive process of knowledge that enriched the study dimensions and contextualized the understanding of the phenomena under study.

As noted by Padilla-Petry et al. (2021), cartographies are visual tools that enable the mapping and graphic representation of interview data in a clear and understandable format. In this study, cartographies (see Annex 1) were employed to verify the consistency and coherence of the information obtained from the interviews. By tracing connections, relationships, and emerging patterns within the maps, it was possible to identify any gaps or contradictions in the data. Furthermore, the mappings provided opportunities to explore new perspectives and generate fresh insights from the existing information.

The interviews were recorded and transcribed, then reviewed multiple times to identify recurring patterns using the Happyscribe program. The analysis was conducted continuously throughout the process to detect and explore key themes that made up the dimensions under study and the nuances of each school that emerged during the reflective deepening cycles of the collected interviews. Data were analyzed following the principles of grounded theory. The aim was to gain an understanding of the dimensions of PLCs. For this reason, the defining dimensions of PLCs were used as a framework to integrate all the units of meaning (i.e. fully meaningful phrases related to the themes under study) that provided depth and nuance to each dimension.

The data were categorized through a sequential process that began with a horizontal cross-sectional analysis of the entire educational area of the comarca of Las Villas, followed by a vertical analysis of the specific schools within the area (A, B, and C). Both the cross-sectional and vertical analyses were supported by NVivo 12 software tools. While grounded theory principles guided the initial exploration of data to ensure that emerging themes, perspectives, and contingencies were not overlooked, a semi-open matrix of codes derived from predefined theoretical dimensions was chosen (see Table 1). This allowed for a structured and focused analysis that led to a better understanding of the data.

All this was developed following a dynamic and sequential design, which integrates a set of vertical (by cases) and cross-sectional (by themes) analyses, taking into account three types of complementary analytical evidence: the degrees of presence of thematic units expressed in percentages and the cluster analyses (more typical of a parametric qualitative analysis), but contrasted, enriched, nuanced, and deepened from the observation of participants, and from the sense of the informants’ own voice and their dialectical validation of the results.

Results and discussion

This study sought to address the following research questions:

To what extent do the Andalusian rural schools studied exhibit the characteristics of Professional Learning Communities in response to their contextual challenges?

Table 4 summarizes the key findings from the units of meaning related to the dimensions under study in the educational area of Comarca Las Villas.

Table 4.

Content analysis according to the PLC dimensions: Las Villas region.

	Units of meaning around this dimension	Percentage
Leadership for learning	164	24.35%
Shared vision, values, and purpose	124	18.71%
Collective learning	48	6.85%
Interactive professional practice	64	10.05%
Mutual support	98	11.91%
Organizational conditions	75	10.32%
Social capital and networking	134	17.78%

Source: Authors’ own, based on NVivo results.

When observing the percentage of occurrences of units of meaning related to the dimensions that characterize a PLC and also according to the degree of meaning in the different reports, the following profile emerges:

Leadership for Learning stands out clearly above the rest, highlighting its fundamental role in the development of PLCs. This dimension emphasizes the importance of effective leadership to foster a culture of learning within the community.

Next, two key dimensions: Shared Vision, Values and Purpose (which form the basis of the improvement projects that govern the life of schools) and Social Capital and Networks (which address both their needs for collaboration, as well as the demand for it and its interconnection with the community).

A third group of dimensions, with less specific weight, includes Mutual Support, Organizational Conditions and Collaboration. Although important, these factors are not as central to PLC development as leadership and shared purpose. Finally, Collective Learning emerges as an almost residual or secondary aspect. These findings are aligned with the TALIS-Spain report (González, 2020) and studies on professional collaboration in our context (Domingo et al., 2024). But it highlights that in all cases and informants, there is a need and a shared purpose of improvement. These trends align with recent findings (Fernández-Terolet and Domingo, in press) which emphasize the power of community-based approaches to inclusive professional development.

Figure 2 illustrates in more detail the relationships between these dimensions.

Figure 2.

Cluster analysis. Comarca Las Villas region. Source: Authors’ own using NVivo 12 tools.

The cluster analysis reveals that, across the three schools in the “Las Villas” region, leadership for learning and shared vision, values, and purpose are the most prominent dimensions deeply integrated into the organizational culture. These dimensions form the strategic foundation upon which educational actions are built. Evidence from interviews suggests that shared leadership is fostered through regular staff meetings and participatory decision-making processes, which, according to school leaders, contribute to aligning the educational team around a common purpose (Harris and Jones, 2017; Leithwood et al., 2020). This leadership model supports the implementation of structured improvement projects aimed at addressing local educational challenges (Bolívar et al., 2022; Otero, 2019).

At the core of this foundation is recognizing the need to increase social capital and networking, which connect the schools to their local communities. These networks strengthen collaboration with families and external institutions, as evidenced by the partnerships established with local councils, NGOs, and regional education initiatives. School leaders emphasized that these collaborations provide access to external training opportunities for teachers and facilitate resource-sharing agreements, which in turn contribute to fostering a shared educational vision (Penuel et al., 2009; Putnam, 2016).

Next, school leaders and staff highlight mutual support as a factor contributing to relational trust and teacher well-being. However, given the limited number of teacher participants in the study—given their poor stability in the schools under study—further research is needed to assess the broader impact of these support mechanisms on teacher cohesion and their long-term commitment to educational improvement.

Lastly, although organizational conditions that support collective learning and interactive professional practice appear less frequently in the discourse and represent an area where progress needs to be made, they are assigned equal importance in the informants’ discourse. They all emphasize that these conditions would enable teachers to engage in collective learning and share methodologies, thereby enhancing pedagogical practices overall.

How are collaboration and learning practices among teachers differentially manifested in challenging rural environments?

School A

Table 5 summarizes the results of the content analysis for the PLC dimensions in school A, with the units of meaning categorized into three levels of development based on their degree of presence.

The dimension of Leadership for Learning (22.96%) emphasizing its central role in the conduct of the educational project and the alignment of the team with a common purpose.

It is closely followed by the dimension of Shared Vision, Values and Purpose a fundamental component that leaders use to direct the direction and continuity of the educational project. This shared vision is crucial for gradually building team alignment around common goals and setting a clear direction. Mutual support also emerges as a critical factor, fostering relational trust and encouraging teacher collaboration. Only they have to be built and renovated almost every year.

A third group, moderately represented in the participants’ discourse includes Organizational Conditions and Social Capital and Networking. Although they are still in the early stages of development, they are considered essential to the school's functionality. Collective Learning is both a tool to improve and a need to share knowledge, although there is still room for growth. Meanwhile, Interactive Professional Practice is very in the classroom.

Table 5.

Content analysis according to the PLC dimensions: School A.

	Units of meaning around this dimension	Percentage
Leadership for learning	52	22.96%
Shared vision, values, and purpose	45	20.3%
Collective learning	27	11.26%
Interactive professional practice	21	8.6%
Mutual support	41	15.65%
Organizational conditions	22	10.85%
Social capital and networking	25	10.36%

Source: Authors’ own based on NVivo results.

Consistent with these findings, the cluster analysis in Figure 3 reinforces the conclusion that in this school, leadership focused on learning and a shared project from the foundation of the school's culture. The principal serves as the central figure, inspiring and guiding the team. Although she does not view herself this way, she is dedicated to a distributed leadership approach that encourages everyone's participation.

“I wanted to organize a shared leadership so that we all have responsibilities…. Actually, everything is pretty much spread out.”

Leadership extends beyond formal management roles; it is closely linked to a shared vision that unites all staff in pursuing common goals of inclusion and social justice. As the head of studies observes:

“It is critical that we are aligned with the school's vision, that every action is geared toward social justice and inclusion.”

To bring the project and purpose to life, they see Mutual Support and Organizational Conditions as essential dimensions. Collaboration and trust serve as vital pillars in the school's daily operations. The principal conveys this through a visual metaphor:

“The school is like a ship…. I steer it, but my crew are the ones who keep everything running. If a rope breaks, the others hold it up.”

The head of studies also highlights the cohesion of the team in the face of complexity:

“We are a close-knit team…we always support each other in times of difficulty.”

Although mutual support is strong, organizational conditions often pose a challenge, as time for coordination is limited. This is reflected in the words of the director:

“It is very difficult to coordinate because there is not enough time. We work from 4 to 7 on Mondays, but it's complicated to do everything in that time.”

They also highlight the importance of Collective Learning and Social Capital and Networking. While shared learning is valued at the school, there is still room for growth. The school promotes a culture where staff share their knowledge, but organizational and time constraints and limited technology hinder a more consistent flow of learning. As the director explains, the school often has to procure its own technological resources, which impacts other areas of its operation:

“We need technology, but we buy it ourselves by depriving ourselves of other things.”

Despite these barriers, the school has successfully built relationships with some external partners, though not without challenges, to coordinate activities. The head of studies remarks pragmatically:

“The City Council is very involved, but sometimes we overlap with each other's activity days because they organize things on their own.”

Finally, the areas needing the most progress are Interactive Professional Practice and Collaborative Learning. These practices are not yet fully embedded in the school's daily routines. While there are efforts to share effective practices, limited resources and a lack of time hinder the full development of professional collaboration. Despite these challenges, the school remains committed to improving in this area, as the director notes:

“We have tried to share our practices, but we lack the time and resources to make this more effective.”

Figure 3.

Cluster analysis. School A. Source: Authors’ own using NVivo 12 tools.

School B

The dimensions (see Table 6) that characterize this educational school reveal a reality in which:

The dimension of Leadership for Learning occupies a prominent place, with a central role in the development of the school. Along with this, the construction and development of a Shared Vision, Values and Purpose also occupies a prominent place in the discourse, denoting the importance of these elements to guide the educational project and bring together the efforts of the community.

It is followed by Social Capital and Networks. The stories emphasizing the value of connections and collaborations both inside and outside the school to maximize available resources.

But, as denoted by the third group of dimensions. The topics related to Mutual Support, Organizational Conditions and Interactive Professional Practice. While there has been progress in structural and formal conditions—as enabling structures—actual collaboration remains relatively low. This is evidenced by the minimal presence of the Collective Learning dimension in the discourse of the informantsThis suggests that collective collaboration is rare within the school, indicating the need for better support and organizational structure to facilitate professional cooperation.

Table 6.

Content analysis according to the PLC dimensions: School B.

	Units of meaning around this dimension	Percentage
Leadership for learning	48	25.12%
Shared vision, values, and purpose	40	21.96%
Collective learning	7	2.77%
Interactive professional practice	16	9.16%
Mutual support	23	9.57%
Organizational conditions	31	11.87%
Social capital and networking	39	19.56%

Source: Authors’ own based on NVivo results.

The cluster analysis (see Figure 4) reveals a hierarchical structure in the discourse regarding how School B is organized, operates, and is guided. It emphasizes that leadership for learning serves as the central pillar, forming the foundation upon which other dimensions are built, particularly developing a project focused on improvement through shared purposes. The role of the director is clearly pivotal in this school, not only as a pedagogical leader but also as the driving force behind the entire team. In the words of the secretary:

“Amparo is indispensable. We are always meeting after class to discuss our students and work together to find possible ways of improving things.”

School leaders ground their role as promoters of open dialogue and shared responsibility among staff through programmed collaborative spaces and distributed leadership practices.

Figure 4.

Cluster analysis. School B. Source: Authors’ own using NVivo 12 tools.

Thus, it is precisely this shared vision and values that constitute the second pillar supporting the school. This is not only a common ideal but also a coherent direction that enables each team member to clearly understand where the educational community is heading. Decisions are made as a team, always with the students’ well-being in mind.

Social capital and networks become crucial in a context characterized by isolation and high teacher turnover. Indeed, the strength of these networks is essential for the school to continue moving forward and realizing its vision. A clear example of this is provided by the principal, who highlights how they managed to repair students’ computers through the support of external projects, the help of the City Council, and local associations. These relationships not only help secure resources but also ensure the sustainability of the educational project and strengthen ties with the external community.

They also emphasize the importance of mutual support and view organizational conditions as connected dimensions that foster trust and cooperation among teachers. In this regard, the principal stresses the importance of creating conditions from the beginning of the school year that promote closeness and collaboration among staff:

“We have an initial meeting so that new teachers can become familiar with the school and the environment, and we are very supportive of each other, especially in the beginning.”

This supportive environment favors the integration of new teachers and strengthens their sense of belonging to the school, making it easier for them to address difficulties as a cohesive group.

However, the organizational conditions of the school pose certain restrictions, particularly in terms of scheduling opportunities for staff to work together. There is a clear need for better organizational structures that enable more fluid professional interactions, as the current conditions hinder the effectiveness and frequency of collaborative work. As the head of studies notes:

“We coordinate as best we can, and since time is limited, we end up doing a lot of work at home.”

Finally, the great challenge, which still lies far ahead, is interactive professional practice and collective learning. As evident from the current situation, these dimensions appear less integrated into the school's culture, manifesting as isolated efforts rather than consolidated practices. Despite many attempts, collective learning remains the least developed aspect. Although there are ongoing efforts for teacher development in the updated curriculum, there is still no follow-up to assess its true impact on students.

School C

Finally, we present a case that has advanced somewhat further toward embodying what it means to be a PLC committed to inclusion and the development of a community project. Table 7 highlights the following:

As in the previous schools, the dimension of Leadership for Learning stands out, from a transformative, caring, resilient and environmental perspective, emphasizing its central role in the functioning of the school. What distinguishes this school, however, is that it actively supports, seeks and strengthens the presence and development of social capital and networks to improve the school. This reflects the principal's strong belief in the importance of connections between the school and its community in facilitating access to resources and improving social cohesion.

A second group of dimensions includes Shared Vision, Values and Purpose and Interactive Professional Practice which, although slightly less prominent, are essential to consolidate collaboration among the teaching team and guide actions towards common objectives.

A third set of dimensions, comprising Organizational Conditions and Mutual Aid, is moderately represented in the discourse

However, Collective Learning remains a significant challenge, with a more marginal presence. Focusing on inclusion and service users decreases the emphasis on how school professionals learn.

Table 7.

Content analysis according to the PLC dimensions: School C.

	Units of meaning around this dimension	Percentage
Leadership for learning	64	25.06%
Shared vision, values, and purpose	39	15.1%
Collective learning	14	5.73%
Interactive professional practice	27	11.95%
Mutual support	34	10.22%
Organizational conditions	22	8.8%
Social capital and networking	70	23.14%

Source: Authors’ own based on NVivo results.

The cluster analysis in Figure 5 supports this analysis, showing that this community's foundation lies in its director's transformational and inclusive leadership. She works to build and sustain an environment of mutual support and collaboration within the school, fostering relational trust and care for both colleagues and users. This leader is widely recognized for her leadership abilities, as well as her closeness and empathy toward the entire community. In this regard, Martín, a monitor at the school, notes that:

“She's a director, yes, but now she's family. She truly lives it and makes us feel like a family where everyone helps each other and wants to contribute their share.”

This leadership style is rooted in a deep understanding of the experiences and challenges faced by both teachers and students. This closeness makes the team feel supported, and leadership is perceived as collaborative. María Ángeles, another monitor at the school, comments on the director, saying:

“Toni knows how to guide us and delegate… Whenever there's a problem, she calls us, and we solve it as a team. This is how we ensure everything goes well and maintain a good relationship with families and institutions.”

This approach strengthens mutual support, another key dimension at the school. Trust and collaboration among team members are essential for maintaining a work environment in which no one feels isolated and where there is always someone willing to help. This fosters a solid foundation for the school's success and the well-being of teachers and students.

Figure 5.

Analysis of PLC dimensions: School C. Source: Authors’ own based on NVivo 12 analyses.

Building on this leadership and establishing relational trust and mutual support, the school is committed to developing and achieving a shared vision, values, and purpose at the community level. This shared vision can mobilize additional efforts, wills, and people to contribute to the project. To this end, they focus on generating, harmonizing, and strengthening the project's social capital and interrelationship networks. This structure of dimensions illustrates how the school progresses along these two key lines of work to create a shared identity that steers all actions toward a common goal—namely, inclusion and social justice—both within the educational institution and in collaboration with the local community. Toni highlights how they collaborate with other schools on events such as the International Day of Persons with Disabilities, an initiative that reinforces values of inclusion from an early age:

“We've been collaborating with schools for years…. The children in the school refer to our students as friends, which reinforces inclusion.”

These collaborative networks contribute to the professional development of teachers by facilitating knowledge exchange with external experts, training initiatives, and access to regional professional development programs. Additionally, partnerships with families and institutions provide schools with material and financial resources that support pedagogical initiatives, thereby enhancing their capacity for educational improvement. María Ángeles describes how the team has successfully mobilized the community around its projects despite facing budgetary constraints:

“She gets the money from wherever necessary. If the budget isn’t enough, she does whatever it takes, and if parents need to be involved, she does it. But she's always there, the first to offer support.”

However, the weakest points remain interactive professional practice and collective learning—two dimensions needing improvement, though there are early signs that the teaching team is working to share and enhance its practices through collaboration. While the pandemic and bubble group restrictions have limited knowledge sharing, the school continues to promote a system of rotation and internal training to ensure that all team members can benefit from new methodologies. Toni explains how one of the workshop workers implemented an innovative methodology, which was subsequently shared with the rest of the team:

“One person in the workshop implemented a binding methodology that significantly improved learning…. We have an internal training plan so those who attend courses can share what they have learned.”

Monitor Martín also describes how the team tackled the challenge of obtaining a quality certificate, learning and collaborating throughout the process:

“The hardest part was obtaining the quality certifications. In the end, we succeeded and understood the importance of accessibility and the environment, aspects that we were already implementing but had not made visible.”

Finally, the school is working on developing organizational conditions that facilitate collaboration and learning. Several strategies, such as staff rotation and a training plan, have been implemented to improve internal organization. However, the pandemic has posed significant barriers that have impacted these dynamics. Despite this, the team continues to make efforts to create an environment where training and collaboration remain possible.

Conclusions

Regarding the first research objective, the Andalusian rural schools studied demonstrate alignment with the findings of Domingo et al. (2024), In other words, the Andalusian school system as a whole does not fully align with the PLC model, although it does include dimensions that serve as pillars of this perspective, as well as others in which progress is being made or where more advanced experiences can be found. This study reveals other own nuances—not shared by the majority of the system—and with evidence that incites hope, such as having a clear shared purpose, strong interconnection with the community, and transformative leadership. At the same time, they highlight policies that are developed to increase the stability of teachers in these isolated rural contexts (to establish the prerequisite conditions for sustaining professional collaboration and, therefore, the possibility of progressing as a PLC). Although these schools have not explicitly aimed to establish themselves as, they have adopted leadership and shared purpose building strategies that respond to the improvement needs of their context, and seek to increase their levels of collaboration and interrelatedness and an emphasis on community engagement that aligns with the key dimensions of PLC. However, challenges such as geographic isolation and staff turnover limit their ability to fully institutionalize these practices.

Evidence from school leaders’ testimonies highlights the emphasis on leadership practices that prioritize the development and sustainability of collaborative initiatives (Day and Sammons, 2016; Spillane and Diamond, 2007) and teacher involvement. A central issue to improve the Spanish school (Bolívar, 2019; Bolívar and Bolívar-Ruano, 2016). These efforts also include community engagement projects and structured professional development activities, which align with previous findings on educational leadership in rural contexts (Bolívar et al., 2022; Otero, 2019)

School leaders demonstrate a commitment to pedagogical and transformational leadership, as reflected in their efforts to create structured collaborative spaces and facilitate teacher participation in decision-making processes. However, more evidence is needed to assess the extent to which these practices are consistently applied and perceived by all staff.

The close relationship between the educational team and the local community is crucial in facilitating the creation of supportive and collaborative networks. This proximity fosters cohesion and dedication within teaching teams, making it possible to implement PLCs. Consequently, school leaders prioritize building connections with the community to foster collaboration and mobilize resources that support educational initiatives. These efforts contribute to enhancing the collective professional capital of the teaching staff by expanding their access to knowledge-sharing networks and external professional development opportunities.

However, in rural environments, factors such as remoteness, isolation, high teacher turnover, and limited technological resources create additional challenges. These factors restrict the sense of belonging and hinder the development of stable, interrelated networks essential for sustaining long-term community projects. Although there is a desire to advance professional relationships and collaboration, rural contexts affect collaborative practices and peer learning among teachers (Caballero, 2023; Santana and Barrero, 2021). Staff instability, resource limitations, and geographic distances impact the effectiveness and continuity of these collaborative practices, suggesting that findings might differ in more stable environments—such as in School C.

Therefore, it is crucial to emphasize leadership qualities and establish a strong project that serves as a reference, if not a shared purpose, while fostering resilience and care. Building relational trust and ensuring everyone feels part of the initiative are vital. Across all cases, dimensions like leadership, project structure, educational zone, and the need for professional capital remain central. Due to the challenges of adapting, staying, and committing in rural schools, they focus on strengthening mutual support, resilient leadership, and a caring, companionate approach. These schools need support and resources to build and increase their social and professional capital (Hargreaves and Fullan, 2012). All these elements aim to create effective organizational conditions—as facilitating structures (Grey et al., 2016)—that enhance and sustain teacher leadership and professional collaboration (Hargreaves and O'Connor, 2018).

Committed and democratic leadership has been crucial in some schools in overcoming these barriers, fostering resilient educational communities capable of adapting to challenges through collaboration. The involvement of local communities in these contexts has facilitated initiatives such as joint training sessions and mentorship programs, which provide teachers with additional learning opportunities. While these initiatives have been positively received by school staff, further research is needed to determine their long-term impact on teacher motivation, job satisfaction, and student learning outcomes.

Regarding the second objective, the schools analyzed display varying levels of development, each with a unique implementation of the dimensions of PLCs, depending on their specific circumstances and capacities for improvement (Bolívar, 2014).

School A is characterized by a solid internal organization and strong mutual support among teachers. Collaboration extends beyond formal settings, supported by leadership focused on the students’ future. However, limited financial restrict the development of new practices and innovative projects.

School B emphasizes the committed participation of parents and families in the educational process, strengthening the community. However, high teacher turnover disrupts the continuity of collaborative initiatives and the stability of long-term practices.

School C best exemplifies an extended community of professional practice (Bolivar and Domingo, 2024), with democratic and resilient leadership that drives institutional improvement, learning outcomes, and community engagement. Despite being the most comprehensive model, it faces the challenge of sustaining cohesion and quality as it expands and faces new challenges, then its challenge is to increase its networks of interrelation and professional capital.

The conclusions should be interpreted considering the following analyzers. While the study has a notable strength—its use of a case study approach with depth and detail—it also has a limitation, as the sample is restricted to three educational schools within a specific region, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other educational contexts. Another limitation is the non-participation in the study with the voice of the non-permanent (fluctuating) teaching staff. Therefore, it would be advisable to analyze this variable in the future to confirm to what extent these practices are applied consistently across all teaching staff.

An emerging conclusion of the study highlights both the added value of leaders and communities committed to confronting and transforming their reality through collective improvement projects as a response to the specific challenges faced by isolated rural contexts, and the need for teacher stability that has significant implications for education policy.

Therefore, it would be beneficial to complement and expand this understanding with additional research and evidence to identify common and unique patterns in the implementation of initiatives moving forward in line with PLC in similar contexts. This would help to evaluate its impact on educational improvement and to inform appropriate actions.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Javier de la Hoz Ruíz

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study is supported by predoctoral contracts awarded by the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación de España (grant number PRE2021-098075) and the project PID2020-117020GB-I00, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author biographies

Javier de la Hoz Ruíz, PhD in Pedagogy, supported by an FPI fellowship from the Spanish government. Interim professorat the University of Granada His line od research focuses on professional learning communities and learning improvement, with an emphasis on professional and social capital, as well as sustainable and democratic leadership. With a degree in Primary Education (Special Education and Physical Education) and a Master's in Scientific Communication, he has received awards for excellence in internationalization. He is an active member of the InterLeader network and Arqus Alliance ambassador, with funded research stays in Lyon, Bergen, Minho, Maynooth, and Wroclaw. He has led several competitive research projects, including as Principal Investigator of “Status of the Sustainable Development Goals in Primary Education Pre and Post-Covid-19: Towards Building Professional Teaching Capital under the 2030 Agenda,” awarded by the University of Granada's Vice-Rector for Equality, Inclusion, and Sustainability.

Jesús Domingo Segovia, PhD in Pedagogy. Full Professor. University of Granada (Spain). Member of the Research Network on Educational Leadership and Improvement (RILME) and the “Atlántida Project.” Specialist in “(auto)biographical research in education.” Her research interest is “Leadership, Counselling and quality of education.” He coordinates a line of research on “Communities that Transform.” He is principal researcher of three research projects on “professional learning communities for inclusion and learning improvement in challenging contexts.”

Mohammad Khalil is a senior researcher at the Centre for the Science of Learning and Technology (SLATE) within the Faculty of Psychology at the University of Bergen (UiB). He specializes in AI in education, learning analytics, and machine learning. Khalil holds a Master's degree in Information Security and earned his PhD with distinction at Graz University of Technology in Learning Analytics. Following postdoctoral research at Delft University, he now focuses on responsible data use to support ethical practices in data-driven approaches to learning. With over 80 publications and multiple awards, he actively contributes to research, secures funding (e.g. Equinor, Erasmus+, Peder Sather), serves as an editor for high-impact journals, leads professional organizations, and organizes conferences and workshops.

Javier Mula-Falcón is a teacher and researcher at the University of Cádiz. His main line of research focuses on professional identities, higher education and leadership. He is a member of the FYDAD research group.

Annex I. Example of cartography used in the validation process

Note: In our specific case, and as shown in Annex 1, a mapping approach was implemented by dividing a piece of cardboard into four dimensions: the central actor was located in the upper left, the school of action was represented in the upper right, and the external networks of collaboration and leadership were indicated in the lower left. The x and y axes were incorporated into this graphic representation to facilitate analysis.

A timeline was drawn on the x-axis, extending from the right (representing the past) to the left (indicating the present). This timeline made it possible to identify the changes in the variables over time in each dimension. The variables on the y-axis were categorized into different aspects: positive aspects (represented in green), barriers (represented in yellow), key moments (represented in pink), and aspects to reflect on (represented in orange). In addition, in the leadership dimension, an additional variable related to external networks was added, represented in blue.

During the analysis process, researchers and interviewers used colored sticky notes corresponding to each axis variable to record observations and relevant opinions provided by interviewees. These sticky notes were placed on the cardboard in the corresponding location, considering the dimension and the moment in time. The sticky notes could be moved, added, or adjusted according to the evolution of the discussions, which allowed for a dynamic and deep conversation on the relevant topics.

In addition, to further enrich the analysis, an additional dimension was introduced in the lower right-hand side of the map. In this dimension, connections were established between certain aspects and ways of working identified in the study and the contributions of major authors in the field.

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Andalusian rural schools as professional learning communities: A case study of the Las Villas region

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Literature review

Challenging contexts and social transformation

Learning improvement: a shared community project

Characterization of professional learning communities (PLCs)

Andalusian schools as professional learning communities (PLCs)

Methodology

Method and design

Sample: overview and rationale

Information collection and analysis

Results and discussion

To what extent do the Andalusian rural schools studied exhibit the characteristics of Professional Learning Communities in response to their contextual challenges?

How are collaboration and learning practices among teachers differentially manifested in challenging rural environments?

School A

School B

School C

Conclusions

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Funding

Declaration of conflicting interests

Author biographies

Annex I. Example of cartography used in the validation process

References