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Abstract

In many Western countries, the student populations are largely ethno-culturally diversified due to large inflow of migrants. Despite this, the teaching workforce in these countries tends to be predominantly white. The large disparity between students and teachers has implications for equity and inclusive education. In this paper, we argue that a more diverse teacher workforce – particularly migrant teachers – can help to strengthen inclusiveness in schools along with the increasing diversity of the students in those countries. This ensures that students from diverse backgrounds can have their needs and voices heard and understood in their schools. It also allows migrant students to find their role models in schools as well as in societies. Simultaneously, it is critical to retain highly skilled migrant teachers in the workforce through the creation of more inclusive school policies, systems and overall school culture.

Keywords

teacher diversity minority teachers migrant teachers inclusive education equity and inclusion teacher retention

Introduction

Migration is profoundly changing classrooms’ composition, leading to increasing social, cultural and linguistic diversity in classrooms worldwide (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2023). For example, in Australia, a country with one of the largest proportions of immigrants in the world, the number of people born overseas continues to increase. The 2021 census revealed that 51.5% of Australian residents were either born overseas or have a parent born overseas (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). Classrooms in Australia are similarly diverse, with 25% of students in schools speaking a language other than English at home (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership [AITSL], 2021).

Then, the point is whether the teacher workforce would be diversified in accordance with the diversification of the students. Again, turning to Australia, while the student population has become more diverse, the teacher workforce remains largely homogenous, comprising predominantly monolingual English speakers (AITSL, 2022; Mckenzie et al., 2014). Approximately 17% of Australian teachers are born overseas, compared with 33.6% of the wider working-age population in the country (Australian Teacher Workforce Data [AWTD], 2021). Teachers from migrant background accounts for only 6% of Australia's primary and secondary school teaching workforce and only 6% of senior leadership positions (compared with 10% teaching workforce in senior leadership positions) (AWTD, 2022). Yet, skilled migrant teachers, including those from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, are increasingly valued amidst Australia's teacher shortage crisis and increasingly diverse classrooms (AITSL, 2022; Bense, 2016).

The disparity between teacher diversity and student composition is not unique to Australia. Although different terminologies such as Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) teachers, Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) teachers, minority teachers, and migrant background teachers are used in different countries, the statistics released by these countries give us a sense of the disparity between teacher and student diversity. For example, in Germany, less than 10% of the teacher workforce has a migrant background, significantly lower than the 33% migrant background student population and the 24% migrant population in the country (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2022). Similar patterns are found in the Netherlands, with 4% to 6% of teachers identified as culturally diverse compared to 11% of 15-year-old culturally diverse students (van den Berg et al., 2011). In the United States, approximately 40% of the nation's population and 51% of all elementary and secondary school students were from under-represented racial-ethnic groups compared to only 20% of all K-12 teachers (National Teacher and Principal Survey, 2018). In the United Kingdom, White British teachers make up 87% of the teaching force, but the student populations are far more ethnically and culturally diversified, with just 65% of students coming from a White British background (UK Government, 2020a, 2020b). As a result, students from minority and diverse cultural backgrounds do not see themselves represented in their teachers and are rarely taught by teachers from the same cultural and ethnic group. For the broader student population, this also means that students miss out on diverse experiences and valuable learning opportunities (Joseph-Salisbury, 2020).

This paper, therefore, aims to discuss the need to increase the diversity of teachers in Western countries. Particularly this paper argues that there should be more migrant teachers to strengthen inclusiveness in schools along with the increasing diversity of the students in these countries. To achieve this goal, this paper is structured as follows. After this introduction, we will provide the backdrop to the discussion by looking at the expansion of diversities in the Western education system and then exploring how we can harness a diverse teaching workforce to bring about a more inclusive learning environment for students. Then, we shall consider the potential of migrant teachers to contribute to teacher diversity, the challenges they face and how we can better retain them in the teaching workforce. We conclude by summarising the discussion and the implications for policies and practices.

Diversity, equity and inclusion

As a result of the increased international movement of people, diversity has become a salient feature in major cities worldwide. Vertovec first coined the term ‘superdiversity’ in 2007 to describe the dynamic and complexity of population diversity. He observed that migrants from the same national and ethnic background might practice different religions, speak different languages, and have varying experiences, motives, and patterns of migration and that they can no longer be easily grouped according to pre-defined categories of race, ethnicity, or religion (Vertovec, 2007). Since then, migration has intensified, and refugee crises have occurred more often and on a larger scale in the last decade, leading to unprecedented magnitude and diversity in refugee flow (Cerna, 2019). These demographic changes lead to fundamental questions about diversity, equity and inclusion in education (Cerna et al., 2021).

An equitable education system refers to one that ‘offers quality education for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities, eliminating all forms of discrimination’ (UNESCO, 2009: 126). A fundamental principle of equity education is the valuing of diversity and inclusivity. Inclusive education recognises that children within the same classroom have diverse backgrounds and experiences. An equitable and inclusive education system is associated with improved students’ academic achievement and fosters socio-emotional growth, self-esteem, and peer acceptance (UNESCO, 2020). Improved academic achievement is essential to improved employability, economic benefits, physical and mental health, social cohesion and participation. Including diverse students from migrant backgrounds and ethnic minority groups promotes feelings of social efficacy and supports future social interactions and adaptability in the workplace (Nishina et al., 2019).

Teachers are critical in the implementation of inclusive education. Teachers who understand students’ demographic backgrounds and are conscious of the complexity of systematic social issues such as marginalisation and inequality confronting learners are instrumental in making education inclusive for students from ethnic minorities and migrant backgrounds. At the school level, an inclusive educational environment allows all students to develop global competence skills and the capacity to examine local, global and intercultural issues and engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures (OECD, 2018a, 2018b). Despite the inroads made in inclusive education, many education systems still struggle to address the learning needs of students from migrant and minority backgrounds.

Harnessing teacher diversity for inclusive education

Teaching is a complex, multifaceted task, even more so in increasingly heterogeneous societies where students from diverse experiences and various lived experiences and learning needs come together in the classroom. To create equitable and inclusive learning environments that support all learners in achieving their educational potential, teachers must be equipped with a range of competencies, knowledge and attitudes (Cerna et al., 2021). Yet, research shows that teachers often feel unprepared to handle the diverse needs of students in their classrooms. The TALIS survey reported that only 26% of lower secondary teachers feel well or very well prepared for teaching in diverse classroom settings upon finishing their initial teacher education, and only 33% of experienced in-service teachers feel confident in managing the challenges of a multicultural classroom (OECD, 2019).

A diverse teaching workforce can create a more equitable and inclusive learning environment for more diversified students. A diverse teaching workforce that mirrors student diversity allows students and their families to see themselves reflected in their schools and education system. Students will find role models that reflect their life experiences, feel more comfortable and flourish in learning environments where their home culture is recognised and valued. Research across different educational settings has consistently demonstrated that the learning needs of a culturally diverse student are better served by a teaching workforce that represents the students’ demographic (Anderson et al., 2022; Buckskin, 2016; Driessen, 2015; European Commission Report, 2017; Grissom and Redding, 2016; Radhouane et al., 2022). Culturally diverse students from migrant families are more likely to face linguistic and cultural obstacles, social exclusion, bullying and alienation in school (Fazel and Betancourt, 2017; UNESCO, 2019). The psychological trauma associated with displacement or migration, interruptions in schooling, and gaps in learning achievement may also cause them to be more susceptible to dropping out (Dryden-Peterson, 2015). Teachers who shared similar language and cultural characteristics and lived experiences as their migrant students could play a critical role in supporting their success in school (European Commission Report, 2017; OECD, 2023).

Teachers from diverse cultural and language backgrounds are valued for their multilingual and multicultural abilities and different global perspectives. They may relate more easily with students with similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds, help enhance home-school partnerships (Georgi, 2016), and serve as cultural resources for all teachers (Fibbi and Aparicio Gómez, 2022). Studies indicated that teachers from culturally diverse groups have a more positive attitude towards culturally diverse students than teachers from majority groups (Glock and Kleen, 2019; Grissom and Redding, 2016; Nicholson-Crotty et al., 2016). These teachers also demonstrate a greater awareness of social inequalities, a stronger commitment to social justice, and a particular commitment to act as role models for their culturally diverse students (Mantel, 2020; Radhouane et al., 2022; Santoro, 2015). Culturally diverse migrant teachers often tap into their personal life experiences related to migration and schooling to influence their teaching practices (Mantel, 2020; Radhouane et al., 2022), although this might be brought in rather intuitively and unreflectingly by transferring life experience into pedagogical orientation (Mantel, 2022).

A diverse teaching workforce could also lead to improved school performance, innovation and more creative approaches to problem-solving (AITSL, 2019). As schools are a microcosm of society, encouraging diversity in schools provides an environment that nurtures individuals to be inclusive members of society. Given that culturally diverse migrant teachers come from vast regions, speak different languages, and have different lived experiences, cultural perspectives and worldviews, having diverse teachers provides opportunities for students to interact with people from diverse backgrounds and cultures. At the school level, including voices from teachers with diverse experiences and worldviews allows for widening perspectives around discussion on school policies, curriculum design and teaching practices.

Building a diverse teaching workforce

Building a diverse teaching workforce requires a holistic approach that includes attracting culturally diverse candidates into initial teacher education, recruiting teachers from diverse backgrounds, and creating a supportive work environment to retain these teachers. While government policy and efforts worldwide to attract teacher candidates from culturally diverse backgrounds into initial teacher education have shown positive results, these efforts did not solve the issues of the under-representation of teachers from culturally diverse backgrounds in the teaching workforce.

Indeed, the number of culturally diverse teachers is highly confined in many Western countries. For example, while the persistent effort and policy commitment to recruit BAME teachers in the United Kingdom had steadily increased BAME teachers’ enrolment in initial teacher education from 14% in 2015/2016 to 21% in 2022/2023, this did not translate to a similar increase in the proportion of BAME teachers in the workforce as only 6% of primary teachers and 10% of secondary teachers are of BAME background (UK Department of Education, 2021). An astonishing 46% of the schools in the United Kingdom have no BAME teachers at all (Tereshchenko et al., 2020). A similar pattern is observed in the United States, where despite a significant increase in minority teachers enrolling in initial teacher education, encouraged by government and organisational initiatives (Albert Shanker Institute, 2015; Villegas and Irvine, 2010), teachers in schools remain primarily white, with only 20% of K-12 teachers from under-represented racial-ethnic groups, a sharp contrast to the 40% general public and 51% student population from the same racial-ethnic groups (Ingersoll et al., 2022). In all these countries, ethnic minority teachers are leaving their schools and the teaching profession at a much higher rate than ethnic majority educators (European Commission Report, 2017; Ingersoll et al., 2022).

Researchers describe the high turnover rate of teachers as a leaky pipeline. Issues connected to the school's governance, leadership, and organisational conditions are the main factors driving teacher turnover. Ethnic minority teachers in the United States were dissatisfied with the lack of autonomy over classroom issues and decisions and the low levels of collective faculty voice in schoolwide decisions that affect their jobs (Ingersoll et al., 2019). Tereshchenko et al. (2020)'s study found that job satisfaction and retention of BAME teachers in the United Kingdom are affected by the school leaders’ racial literacy and commitment to equity and social justice, the presence of an ethnically diverse senior leadership team, and the opportunities for BAME teachers to contribute to collective decision making. Opportunities for career progression for ethnic minority teachers is another element that influences their decisions to remain or leave the profession. For example, the experienced BAME teachers in Tereshchenko et al. (2020) who were interested in senior promotions felt unfairly passed over for such opportunities, leaving many in pursuit of opportunities outside the school. Other factors affecting minority teacher retention include demands to be an intercultural ambassador, burnout, marginalisation or isolation, discrimination in the workplace, perceived inequalities, and feeling excluded, not belonging, and othered (European Commission Report, 2017; Yip, 2021).

Migrant teachers as contributors to teacher diversity

What is rarely discussed in the conversations about teacher shortages and inclusive education is the potential of harnessing the experience of the existing pool of immigrants with overseas teacher qualifications to fill the need in the education systems. Research on the experiences of migrant teachers has consistently revealed that the expertise inherent in immigrant teachers in their host countries is underutilised.

The primary reason is the significant hurdles for migrant teachers to get their overseas teaching qualifications and professional experience recognised and accredited in their host countries (Dwyer and Jacob, 2022; Reid et al., 2014; Vandeyar et al., 2014). For example, participants in Walsh et al. (2011) study described the accreditation process with the Canadian authorities as a ‘maze of regulations’ that left the teachers ‘feeling exhausted, disheartened, angry, and sometimes powerless’ (p. 662). In many countries, the accreditation can be lengthy and costly, comprising translations and certificate authentications (Fee, 2010) and passing a language proficiency test (Collins and Reid, 2012; Janusch, 2015). In some cases, migrant teachers’ qualifications obtained from their home countries may be ‘degraded, devalued and discounted’ (Miller, 2008: 30). Some countries also have specific citizenship requirement that makes it difficult for migrant teachers to work in school. For example, Brunold (2018) reported that to practice as an official teacher in public schools in Germany, one must have German nationality. This requirement limits the possibilities of work in schools and colleges for those who do not meet the citizenship criteria. In Australia, while migrant teachers have been given priority in the immigration processes to help fill the workforce shortage in the education system (Australian Government, Department of Home Affairs, 2022), data collected from 954 online surveys and 62 interviews with migrant teachers revealed significant structural and institutional barriers to access the profession. These include the lack of professional advice and information, the absence of programmes to help teachers gain accreditation and the lack of mentoring or support programmes. Rather than recognising the contribution of immigrant teachers, issues such as exclusion and ‘problematisation’ of overseas-trained teachers continue to prevail in the Australian education sector (Cruickshank, 2022).

Several studies have also documented migrant teachers working in less popular schools that are hard to staff (Bartlett, 2014; Ingersoll et al., 2019; Tereshchenko et al., 2020) due to poor student discipline, unpopular geographical locations or in schools that are socio-economically disadvantaged. For instance, Sharplin (2014) found that immigrant teachers are frequently recruited to fill vacancies in rural and remote schools in Western Australia. Immigrant teachers were also called upon to teach in subject areas they were not qualified to teach. For example, the Japanese immigrant teacher in Yip’s (2021) study was asked by reported that her Japanese immigrant teacher participant was asked to teach the Japanese language in the school even though she had applied for the math teacher position and her teaching qualification is in Math. The issues of migrant teachers’ professional transition have been widely discussed, including challenges associated with adjusting to pedagogical practices, educational values and expectations (Caravatti et al., 2014; Reid et al., 2014), managing student discipline (Collins and Reid, 2012; Jhagroo, 2016) and parental expectations (Janusch, 2015), integrating into the local teaching community (Virta, 2015), and experiences of discrimination and marginalisation (Ennerberg and Economou, 2021; Virta, 2015), and feeling of vulnerability (Yip, 2023), and a sense of isolation and not belonging (Yip, 2023; Savski and Vencer Comprendio, 2022).

Retaining migrant teachers in the profession

While efforts to recruit migrant teachers are important, strategies to retain qualified, culturally diverse migrant teachers are equally critical to stem the outflow of migrant teachers. Factors that affect migrant teachers’ decision to stay or leave the profession are not isolated but strongly intertwined in the interactions between teachers’ professional relationships in school and the structural conditions in which they work.

Professional relationships

Professional relationships refer to the relationships between teachers, students, colleagues and principals (Kelchtermans, 2017). Migrant teachers’ relationship and interaction with their students is key to their decision to stay or leave the profession as it constitutes the source of their self-esteem, professionalism and recognition as teachers. Poor relationship with students, often due to disrespectful student behaviour and challenging classroom situations, affects teachers’ sense of efficacy in their professional role to help the students reach their educational goals, giving rise to self-doubt, decreased self-esteem, motivation, and job satisfaction, which contributes to the teachers’ decision to leave the profession (Towers and Maguire, 2017; Yinon and Orland-Barak, 2017).

Migrant teachers’ relationship with colleagues and principals is another crucial element for teachers’ self-esteem, job motivation and satisfaction and, ultimately, the decisive factors for teachers’ decisions to leave (Newberry and Allsop, 2017). Getting recognition as a good teacher from the members of the school community is essential for teachers’ legitimacy and professional self-worth. Migrant teachers need to experience that they are valued and trusted professionals. The lack of support from school leadership is frequently cited as the critical reason for teacher turnover (Towers and Maguire, 2017).

Belongingness and vulnerability as structural conditions

Having a sense of belonging based on shared educational goals and norms in the school plays a critical role in teachers’ decision to stay in the profession. Teachers need to feel they are part of a collective group of professionals (Newberry and Allsop, 2017; Yip, 2021). Lacking a sense of belonging to the school and the broader teaching community can cause migrant teachers to feel isolated emotionally and in terms of their beliefs, which are central to teachers’ self-understanding and their role (Gallant and Riley, 2017). This is not only a matter of receiving recognition, acknowledgement, and support but also about the chance to contribute to the teaching profession. Kelchtermans (2017) argue that it is about teachers feeling that their beliefs align with the normative views and expectations of the school. Yip’s (2021) study showed that when migrant teachers’ beliefs and attitudes towards teaching and learning align with that of their school, their professional identity is strengthened, and that enhances their belongingness to the school. A persistent feeling of not belonging and not fitting in with the normative beliefs of the school will eventually cause migrant teachers to leave (Baker-Doyle, 2010; Lindqvist and Nordänger, 2016).

Migrant teachers’ feeling of professional vulnerability is another element that may be a catalyst in their decisions to leave the profession (Kelchtermans and Deketelaere, 2016). Migrant teachers feel vulnerable when their teaching competence is not trusted, experience discrimination based on ethnocultural identity, or are disrespected by students and excluded by colleagues (Yip, 2021). This vulnerability diminishes their belonging to the school and contributes to their decision to leave. Newberry and Allsop (2017) argue that it is not necessarily the challenges of the job nor the characteristics of the individual but the structure of the social-professional support that determines if a teacher stays or leaves the profession. As argued in other studies (e.g. Cruickshank, 2022), mentoring and support arrangements for migrant teachers are important. Customised support strategies that deal with the complex social conditions in the school are crucial, including insights from the research on the micropolitics of schools (Kelchtermans and Vanassche, 2017), complex social factors that shape teachers’ workplace experiences (Baker-Doyle, 2010; Moolenaar, 2012).

Conclusion

This paper began by looking at the highly culturally and linguistically diverse classroom composition, particularly in Western immigrant countries, and argued for a need to increase the diversity of the teacher workforce to mirror that of the student population. Doing so not only allows minority students to see themselves represented by their teachers but also creates a more inclusive learning environment. We noted that culturally diverse teachers, particularly migrant teachers, could contribute to various aspects of inclusive education due to their professional competencies and migration-related experiences. Having a diverse teaching workforce not only creates a more inclusive learning environment for minority students but also enriches the experiences of non-ethnic minority students by facilitating the development of intercultural competencies. Furthermore, the presence of migrant and ethnic minority teachers’ voices in the schools can potentially enrich the discussions in curriculum development, teaching practices and school policies and decision making through broadening worldviews and perspectives.

Nevertheless, despite their potential contribution, the attribution rate for migrant teachers is considerably high due to issues related to their professional relations in school and the structural conditions in which they work. To address this, the following points would be recommended. First, school leaders need to create a positive and respectful school culture. This is not only for the migrant teachers but for all stakeholders in the school such that individuals with different backgrounds and lived experiences can learn together (Dewey, 1916). Then, it is also important for the school leaders to facilitate the development of a collegial climate among the teachers. The school can do this by proactively setting up opportunities for collaboration between the migrant teachers and the rest of the teachers. This could include opportunities for co-development and review of the curriculum resources or organising school events and activities for students. Third, it is critical for school leaders to trust and respect migrant teachers from the beginning of their appointments. For this to happen, the school leaders can consider the strengths and potentials of the migrant teachers and consider how they can contribute to the development of the schools. This not only makes migrant teachers feel recognised and supported, it also gives them a chance to contribute to the school in positive ways. This helps to engender a sense of belonging and their desire to remain in the school.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Sun Yee Yip

Eisuke Saito

Author biographies

Sun Yee Yip is a lecturer at the Faculty of Education, Monash University. She research teacher diversity and teacher knowledge development. Sun Yee also has a keen interest in educational leadership, particularly issues related to education reform and diversity, equity and inclusive leadership in educational settings.

Eisuke Saito is a lecturer for Faculty of Education, Monash University. Eisuke research school reform, professional development and pedagogical issues in developing south-east Asian countries.

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Equity and inclusion: Finding strength through teacher diversity

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Diversity, equity and inclusion

Harnessing teacher diversity for inclusive education

Building a diverse teaching workforce

Migrant teachers as contributors to teacher diversity

Retaining migrant teachers in the profession

Professional relationships

Belongingness and vulnerability as structural conditions

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

ORCID iDs

Author biographies

References