This study investigates whether and how sex and race affect access to and rewards for job authority, using 1980 survey data for 1,216 employed workers. The authors examine whether, net of human-capital characteristics, sex and race affect access to and compensation for job authority. In addition, the authors examine whether the translation of credentials into authority and earnings varies depending on workers' sex or race.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Almquist, Elizabeth.1975. Untangling the effects of race and sex: The disadvantaged status of Black women.Social Science Quarterly56:129-42.
2.
Almquist, Elizabeth McTaggart.
1979. Minorities, gender and work.Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
3.
Almquist, Elizabeth
, and Juanita L. Wehrle-Einhorn. 1978. Doubly disadvantaged: Minority women in the labor force. In Women working, edited by Ann Stromberg and Shirley Harkess. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
4.
Bergmann, Barbara.
1986. The economic emergence of women.New York: Basic Books.
5.
Blau, Francine D.
1984. Occupational segregation and labor market discrimination. In Sex segregation in the workplace: Trends, explanations, remedies, edited by Barbara F. Reskin. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
6.
Bridges, William P.
, and Richard A. Berk.1978. Sex, earnings, and the nature of work: A joblevel analysis of male-female income differences.Social Science Quarterly58:553-65.
7.
Carlson, Susan M.1992. Trends in race/sex occupational inequality: Conceptual and measurement issues.Social Problems39:268-90.
8.
Collins, Sharon.1989. The marginalization of Black executives.Social Problems36:317-31.
9.
Corcoran, Mary
, and Greg J. Duncan.1979. Work history, labor force attachment, and earnings differences between the races and sexes.Journal of Human Resources14:3-20.
10.
Drazin, Robert
, and Ellen R. Auster.1987. Wage differences between Men and Women.Human Resource Management26 (Summer):157-68.
11.
Dumas, Rhetaugh G.
1980. Dilemmas of Black females in leadership. In the Black woman, edited by LaFrances Rodgers-Rose. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
12.
England, Paula
, and George Farkas. 1986. Households, employment and gender.New York: Aldine.
13.
Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs.1973. Positive effects of the multiple negative: Explaining the success of Black professional women.American Journal of Sociology78:912-35.
14.
Fernandez, John.
1972. Black managers in white corporations.Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
15.
Fulbright, Karen.
1986. The myth of the double-advantage: Black female managers. In Slipping through the cracks: The status of Black women, edited by Margaret C. Simms and Julianne M. Malveaux. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
16.
Granovetter, Mark.1984. Small is bountiful: Labor markets and establishment size.American Sociological Review40:323-34.
17.
Halaby, Charles N.1979. Job specific sex differences in organizational reward attainment: Wage discrimination vs. rank segregation.Social Forces58: 108-27.
18.
Harlan, Anne
, and Carol Weiss. 1981. Moving up: Women in managerial careers. Working paper no. 86. Wellesley Center for Research on Women.
19.
Higginbotham, Elizabeth.
1987. Employment for Black professional women in the twentieth century. In Ingredients for women's employment policy, edited by Christine Bose and Glenna Spitze. Albany: SUNY Press.
20.
Hill, Martha.
1980. Authority at work: How men and women differ. In Five thousand American families. Vol. 8, edited by Greg J. Duncan and James Morgan. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
21.
Hirschman, Charles
, and Morrison Wong.1984. Socioeconomic gains of Asian Americans, Blacks, and Hispanics: 1960-1976.American Journal of Sociology90:584-607.
22.
Hull, Gloria T.
, Patricia Bell Scott, and Barbara Smith. 1982. But some of us are brave.Old Westbury, NY: Feminist Press.
23.
Irons, Edward
, and Gilbert Moore. 1985. Black managers: The case of the banking industry.New York: Praeger.
24.
Jacobs, Jerry A.1992. Women's entry into management: Trends in earnings, authority and values among salaried managers.Administrative Science Quarterly37:282-301.
25.
Jacobs, Jerry A.
, and Ronnie J. Steinberg.1990. Compensating differentials and the male-female wage gap.Social Forces69:439-68.
26.
Jaffee, David.1989. Gender inequality in workplace autonomy and authority.Social Science Quarterly70:375-90.
27.
Jones, Edward W.1986. Black managers: The dream deferred.Harvard Business Review64:84-93.
28.
Kluegel, James R.1978. The causes and cost of racial exclusion from job authority.American Sociological Review43:285-301.
29.
Kluegel, James R.
, and Eliot Smith. 1986. Beliefs about inequality.New York: Aldine.
30.
Lyson, Thomas A.1985. Race and sex segregation in the occupational structures of southern employers.Social Science Quarterly66:281-95.
31.
Malveaux, Julianne
, and Phyllis Wallace. 1987. Minority women in the workplace. In Working women: Past, present, future, edited by Karen S. Kozaria, Michael H. Moskow, and Lucretia D. Tanner. Washington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs.
32.
Marini, Margaret Mooney.1989. Sex differences in earnings in the United States.Annual Review of Sociology15:343-80.
33.
Markham, William T.
, Sharon Harlan, and Edward J. Hackett.1987. Promotion opportunity in organizations.Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management5:223-87.
34.
Merritt, Deborah
, and Barbara F. Reskin.1992. The double minority: Empirical evidence of a double standard in law school hiring of minority women.University of Southern California Law Review65:2299-2359.
35.
Morgan, John
, and Richard van Dyke. 1970. White-collar Blacks: A breakthrough?American Management Association.
36.
Morrison, Ann M.
, and Mary Ann Von Glinow.1990. Women and minorities in management.American Psychologist45:200-8.
37.
Mueller, Charles W.
, and Toby L. Parcel.1986. Ascription, dimensions of authority, and earnings: The case of supervisors.Research in Social Stratification and Mobility5:199-222.
38.
Mueller, Charles W.
, Toby L. Parcel, and Kazuko Tanaka.1989. Particularism in authority outcomes of Black and white supervisors.Social Science Research18:1-20.
39.
Neckerman, Kathryn M.
, and Joleen Kirschenman.1990. Hiring strategies, racial bias, and inner-city workers: An investigation of employers' hiring decisions.Social Problems38: 433-47.
40.
Parcel, Toby L.
, and Charles W. Mueller.1989. Temporal change in occupational earnings attainment, 1970-1980.American Sociological Review54:622-34.
41.
Reskin, Barbara F.
, and Catherine E. Ross.1992. Authority and earnings among managers: The continuing significance of sex.Work and Occupations19:342-65.
42.
Rosenbaum, James.
1985. Jobs, job status, and women's gains from affirmative action. In Comparable worth: New directions for research, edited by Heidi E. Hartmann. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
43.
Simms, Margaret C.
, and Julianne M. Malveaux. 1986. Slipping through the cracks: The status of Black women.New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
44.
Sokoloff, Natalie J.
1987. The increase of Black and white women in the professions: A contradictory process. In Ingredients for women's employment policy, edited by Christine Bose and Glenna Spitze. Albany: SUNY Press.
45.
Sokoloff, Natalie J.
1992. Black women and white women in the professions: Occupational segregation by race and gender, 1960-1980.New York: Routledge.
46.
Spaeth, Joe L.1985. Job power and earnings.American Sociological REview50:603-17.
47.
Stolzenberg, Ross M.
1980. The measurement and decomposition of causal effects in non-linear and non-additive models. In Sociological methodology, edited by Karl Schuessler. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
48.
Thomas, David
, and Clayton Alderfer. 1989. The influence of race on career dynamics: Theory and research on minority career experiences. In Handbook of career theory, edited by M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, and B. S. Lawrence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
49.
Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald.
1991. Labor process inequality and the gender and race composition of jobs. Paper presented at the meetings of Research Committee 28 of the International Sociological Association, Columbus, Ohio.
50.
Treiman, Donald J.
, and Heidi I. Hartmann. 1982. Women, work and wages.Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
51.
U.S. Bureau of the Census.
1973. 1970 Census of Population. Occupational characteristics. Vol. 2, Part 7A. Subject Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
52.
U.S. Bureau of the Census.
1984. 1980 Census of Population. Occupation by industry. Vol. 2. Subject Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
53.
U.S. Bureau of the Census.
1991. Dollar income of households, families and persons in the U.S.: 1991.Current Population Reports Series P-60, No. 180. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
54.
U. S. Postal Service Hearing on Discriminatory Promotion Policies and Practices and the Effectiveness of EEO Procedures. 1984. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
55.
Villemez, Wayne J.
, and William P. Bridges.1988. When bigger is better.American Sociological Review53:237-55.
56.
Wallace, Phyllis
, Linda Datcher, and Julianne Malveaux. 1980. Black women in the labor force.Boston: MIT Press.
57.
Westcott, Diane N.1982. Blacks in the 1970s: Did they scale the job ladder?Monthly Labor Review105:29-38.
58.
Wilson, Franklin D.
, Marta Tienda, and Lawrence Wu. 1992. Racial equality in the labor market: Still an elusive goal? Madison: Center for Demography and Ecology Working Paper, University of Wisconsin.