References to publications written by women constitute a significantly larger proportion of citations in articles written by women than in articles written by men in the same subfields. Further, the difference between citation patterns of men and women authors increases as the proportion of women in the discipline decreases, showing that these women are doubly disadvantaged in accumulating citations. These results suggest that the problems of members of an out-group tend to be most serious when their numbers are small and that they will find it increasingly easier to gain acceptance and recognition as their numbers increase.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alexander, V. D.
and P. A. Thoits.1985. “Token Achievement: An Examination of Proportional Representation and Performance Outcomes.”Social Forces64:332-40.
2.
Bayer, A. E.
and H. S. Astin.1975. “Sex Differentials in the Academic Reward System.”Science188:796-802.
3.
Blalock, H. M.
1970. Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations.New York: Capricorn Books.
4.
Chiplin, B.
1979. “An Evaluation of Sex Discrimination: Some Problems and a Suggested Reorientation.” Pp. 246-70 in Women in the Labor Market, edited by Cynthia B. Lloyd, Emily Andrews, and Curtis L. Gilroy. New York: Columbia University Press.
5.
Cole, J.
1979. Fair Science: Women in the Scientific Community.New York: Free Press.
6.
Cole, J.
and H. Zuckerman. 1984. “The Productivity Puzzle: Persistence and Change in Patterns of Publication for Men and Women Scientists.” Pp. 217-58 in Advances in Motivation and Achievement, edited by M. L. Maeher and M. W. Steinkamp. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
7.
Cole, S.
and J. R. Cole.1967. “Scientific Output and Recognition: A Study in the Operation of the Reward System in Science.”American Sociological Review32:377-90.
8.
Davidson, P.
and G. D. Papanek.1984. “Faculty Ratings of Major Economics Departments by Citations.”American Economic Review74:225-30.
9.
Diamond, A. M.1986. “What Is a Citation Worth?”Journal of Human Resources21:200-15.
10.
Ferber, M. A.1986. “Citations: Are They an Objective Measure of Work of Women and Men?”Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society11:381-89.
11.
Ferber, M. A.J. A. Huber
, and G. Spitze.1979. “Preference for Men as Bosses and Professionals.”Social Forces58:466-76.
12.
Ferber, M. A.
and B. Kordick.1978. “Sex Differentials in the Earnings of Ph.D.'s.”Industrial and Labor Relations Review31:227-38.
13.
Ferber, M. A.
, J. A. Loeb, and H. M. Lowry.1978. “The Economic Status of Women Faculty; A Reappraisal.”Journal of Human Resources13:385-401.
14.
Ferber, M. A.
and M. Teiman.1980. “Are Women at a Disadvantage in Publishing Journal Articles?”Eastern Economic Journal6:189-94.
15.
Garfield, E.
1979. Citation Indexing: Its Theory and Application in Science, Technology and Humanities.New York: John Wiley.
16.
Goldberg, P. A.1968. “Are Women Prejudiced Against Women?”Trans-Action5:28-30.
17.
Hamermesh, D. A.
, G. E. Johnson, and B. A. Weisbrod.1982. “Scholarship, Citations, and Salaries: Economic Rewards in Economics.”Southern Economics Journal49:472-81.
18.
Izraeli, D. N.1983. “Sex Effects or Structural Effects? An Empirical Test of Kanter's Theory of Proportions.”Social Forces62:153-65.
19.
Johnson, G. E.
and F. P. Stafford.1974. “The Earnings and Promotion of Women Faculty.”American Economic Review64:888-903.
20.
Kanter, R. M.
1977. Men and Women of the Corporation.New York: Basic Books.
21.
Lester, R. A.
1974. Antibias Regulations of Universities: Faculty Problems and Their Solutions.New York: McGraw-Hill.
22.
Long, John V.
1979. “The Idiosyncratic Determinants of Salary Differences.” Pp. 145-154 in Salary Equity, edited by T. R. Pezznlo and B. Brittingham, Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
23.
Pheterson, G. I.
, S. B. Kiesler, and P. A. Goldberg.1971. “Evaluation of the Performance of Women as a Function of their Sex, Achievement and Personal History.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology19:114-18.
24.
Reskin, B. F.1976. “Sex Differences in Status Attainment in Science: The Case of the Postdoctoral Fellowship.”American Sociological Review41:597-612.
25.
Reskin, B. F.
and L. L. Hargens. 1979. “Scientific Advancement of Male and Female Chemists.” Pp. 100-122 in Discrimination in Organizations, edited by R. Alvarez and K. G. Lutterman and Associates. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
26.
Schiebinger, L.1987. “The History and Philosophy of Women in Science: A Review Essay.”Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society12:305-32.
27.
South, S. J.
, C. M. Bonjean, W. T. Markham, and J. Corder.1982. “Social Structure and Intergroup Interaction: Men and Women of the Federal Bureaucracy.”American Sociological Review47:587-99.
28.
Spangler, E.
, M. A. Gordon, and R. M. Pipkin.1978. “Token Women: An Empirical Test of Kanter's Hypothesis.”American Journal of Sociology84:160-70.
29.
Stigler, G. J.
with C. Friedland. 1982. “The Pattern of Citation Practices in Economics.” Pp. 192-222 in The Economist as Preacher, edited by G. J. Stigler. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
30.
Strober, M. H.
and A. O. Quester.1977. “The Earnings and Promotion of Women Faculty: Comment.”American Economic Review67:207-13.
