Utilizing historical and ethnographic data, this article explicates a thesis that involves a paradox—campus police feel vulnerable as the “surveyed” precisely because they gain power as the “surveyor.” Toward this end, first, I identify a dramatic change in the status and function of campus police from watchmen to law enforcement professionals in the 1960s-1970s as a key historical context in which this paradox emerged. Then, I ethnographically explore forms this paradox has taken at the level of consciousness-behavior of campus officers. Attention is paid to how digital technologies of the twenty-first century transform campus policing, a process that redefines the relationship between the state and civil society and normalizes “watching” as a basic mechanism of new governance. I consider political and theoretical implications of new governance and the role writing can play in ethnographic studies of police to elucidate it.
BergerJohn. 1972. Ways of Seeing. London: BBC/Penguin.
8.
BordnerDiane C.PetersenDavid M.1983. Campus Policing. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
9.
BromleyMax L.2003. “Comparing Campus and Municipal Police Community Policing Practices.” Journal of Security Administration26 (2): 37–50.
10.
BromleyMax L.2013. “The Evolution of Campus Policing: An Update to ‘Different Models for Different Eras.’” In Campus Crime: Legal, Social, and Policy Perspectives, 3rd ed., edited by FisherBonnie S.SloanJohn J., 293–323. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
11.
BromleyMax L.ReavesBrian A.1998a. “Comparing Campus and City Police Operational Practices.” Journal of Security Administration21 (2): 41–54.
12.
BromleyMax L.ReavesBrian A.1998b. “Comparing Campus and Municipal Police: The Human Resource Dimension” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management21 (3): 534–46.
13.
BrownMichael, K.1981. Working the Street: Police Discretion and the Dilemmas of Reform. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
14.
BrucatoBen. 2015. “Policing Made Visible: Mobile Technologies and the Importance of Point of View.” Surveillance & Society13 (3/4): 455–73.
FassinDidier ed. 2017. Writing the World of Policing: The Difference Ethnography Makes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
22.
FisherBonnie S.SloanJohn J., eds. 2013. Campus Crime: Legal, Social, and Policy Perspectives, 3rd ed.Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
23.
FoucaultMichel. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage Books.
24.
GarridoMiguelángel. 2015. “Contesting a Biopolitics of Information and Communications: The Importance of Truth and Sousveillance After Snowden.” Surveillance & Society13 (2): 153–67.
25.
GarriottWilliam ed. 2013. Policing and Contemporary Governance. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
26.
GoffmanErving. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
27.
GreeneJack R.MastrofskiStephen D., eds. 1988. Community Policing: Rhetoric or Reality. New York: Praeger.
28.
HallMitchell K.1985. “‘A Crack in Time’: The Response of Students at the University of Kentucky to the Tragedy at Kent State, May 1970.” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society83:36–63.
29.
HammersleyMartinAtkinsonPaul. 2007. Ethnography: Principles in Practice, 3rd ed.New York: Routledge.
30.
HardtMichaelNegriAntonio. 2000. Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
31.
JacobsenShannon K.2015. “Policing the Ivory Tower: Students’ Perceptions of the Legitimacy of Campus Police Officers.” Deviant Behavior36 (4): 310–29.
32.
LanierMark M.1995. “Community Policing on University Campuses: Tradition, Practice, and Outlook.” In Campus Crime: Legal, Social, and Policy Perspectives, edited by FisherBonnie S.SloanJohn J., 246–63. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
33.
LevittCyril. 1984. Children of Privilege: Student Revolt in the Sixties. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press.
34.
LyonDavid. 2002. Surveillance Society. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
35.
MannSteveNolanJasonWellmanBarry. 2003. “Sousveillance: Inventing and Using Wearable Computing Devices for Data Collection in Surveillance Environments.” Surveillance & Society1 (3): 331–55.
36.
ManningPeter K.1977. Police Work. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
37.
ManningPeter K.2014. “Ethnographies of Policing.” In The Oxford Handbook of Police and Policing, edited by ReisigMichael DeanKaneRobert J., 518–50. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
38.
MichenerJames A.1971. Kent State: What Happened and Why. New York: Random House.
39.
MoskosPeter. 2008. Cop in the Hood: My Year Policing Baltimore’s Eastern District. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
40.
MuirWilliam Ker. 1977. Police: Streetcorner Politicians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
41.
NocellaAnthony J.BestStevenMcLarenPeter, eds. 2010. Academic Repression: Reflections from the Academic Industrial Complex. Oakland: AK Press.
42.
NocellaAnthony J.GabbardDavid, eds. 2013. Policing the Campus: Academic Repression, Surveillance, and the Occupy Movement. New York: Peter Lang.
43.
OngWalter J.1982. Orality and Literacy. London: Methuen.
44.
PalmerDarren. 2016. “The Mythical Properties of Police Body-Worn Cameras: A Solution in the Search of a Problem.” Surveillance & Society14 (1): 138–44.
45.
PaolineEugene A.SloanJohn J.2003. “Variability in the Organizational Structure of Contemporary Campus Law Enforcement Agencies: A National-Level Analysis.” Policing26 (4): 612–39.
46.
PapermanPatriciaKatzJack. 2003. “Surveillance Underground: The Uniform as an Interaction Device.” Ethnography4(3): 397-419.
47.
PattenRyanAlwardLucasThomasMatthewWadaJames. 2016. “The Continued Marginalization of Campus Police.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management39 (3): 566–83.
48.
PeakKenneth J.1995. “The Professionalization of Campus Law Enforcement: Comparing Campus and Municipal Law Enforcement Agencies.” In Campus Crime: Legal, Social, and Policy Perspectives, edited by FisherBonnie S.SloanJohn J., 228–45. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
49.
PeakKenneth J.BartheEmmanuel P.GarciaAdam. 2008. “Campus Policing in America: A Twenty-Year Perspective.” Police Quarterly11 (2): 239–60.
50.
PowellJohn W.1994. “The Beginning—Yale Campus Police Department—1894.” Campus Law Enforcement Journal24 (4): 2–4.
51.
ReavesBrian A.2015. Campus Law Enforcement, 2011-12. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
52.
ReavesBrian A.GoldbergAndrew L.1996. Campus Law Enforcement Agencies, 1995. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
53.
RubinsteinJonathan. 1973. City Police. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
54.
SkolnickJerome H. 1966. Justice without Trial: Law Enforcement in Democratic Society. New York: Wiley.
55.
SloanJohn J.1992. “The Modern Campus Police: An Analysis of Their Evolution, Structure, and Function.” American Journal of Police11 (2): 85–104.
56.
SloanJohn J.FisherBonnie. 2011. The Dark Side of the Ivory Tower: Campus Crime as a Social Problem. New York: Cambridge University Press.
StaplesWilliams G.2003. “Surveillance and Social Control in Postmodern Life.” In Punishment and Social Control, 2nd ed., edited by BlombergThomas G.CohenStanley, 191–211. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
Van MaanenJohn. 1978. “The Asshole.” In Policing: A View from the Street, edited by ManningPeter K.Van MaanenJohn, 221–37. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear.
65.
WadaJames C.PattenRyanCandelaKimberlee. 2010. “Betwixt and Between: The Perceived Legitimacy of Campus Police.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management33 (1): 114–31.
66.
WestleyWilliam A.1970. Violence and the Police. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
67.
WhiteMichael D.2014. Police Officer Body-Worn Cameras: Assessing the Evidence. Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
68.
WilsonCharles P.WilsonShirley A.2015. “Evaluating Legitimacy and Marginalization: Campus Policing in the State of Rhode Island.” Cogent Social Sciences1 (1).
