Programming of Appetite Control during Breastfeeding as a Preventative Strategy against the Obesity Epidemic

Obesity and overweight. World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/. Updated March 2013. Accessed June 2013.

Oken E Gillman MW . Fetal origins of obesity. Obes Res. 2003;11(4):496-506.

Cripps RL Martin-Gronert MS Archer ZA Hales CN Mercer JG Ozanne SE . Programming of hypothalamic neuropeptide gene expression in rats by maternal dietary protein content during pregnancy and lactation. Clin Sci (Lond). 2009;117(2):85-93.

Savino F Liguori SA Fissore MF Oggero R . Breast milk hormones and their protective effect on obesity. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol. 2009;2009:327505.

Bouret SG Simerly RB . Developmental programming of hypothalamic feeding circuits. Clin Genet. 2006;70(4):295-301.

Palou M Priego T Sanchez J Torrens JM Palou A Pico C . Moderate caloric restriction in lactating rats protects offspring against obesity and insulin resistance in later life. Endocrinology. 2010;151(3):1030-1041.

Lakshman R Elks CE Ong KK . Childhood obesity. Circulation. 2012;126(14):1770-1779.

Hester SN Hustead DS Mackey AD Singhal A Marriage BJ . Is the macronutrient intake of formula-fed infants greater than breast-fed infants in early infancy? J Nutr Metab. 2012;2012:891201.

Ball TM Wright AL . Health care costs of formula-feeding in the first year of life. Pediatrics. 1999;103(4 pt 2):870-876.

Cattaneo A Ronfani L Burmaz T Quintero-Romero S Macaluso A Di Mario S . Infant feeding and cost of health care: a cohort study. Acta Paediatr. 2006;95(5):540-546.

Bartick MC Stuebe AM Schwarz EB Luongo C Reinhold AG Foster EM . Cost analysis of maternal disease associated with suboptimal breastfeeding. Obstet Gynecol. 2013;122(1):111-119.

Gillman MW . The first months of life: a critical period for development of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(6):1587-1589.

von Kries R Koletzko B Sauerwald T . Breast feeding and obesity: cross sectional study. BMJ. 1999;319(7203):147-150.

Gillman MW Rifas-Shiman SL Camargo CA Jr . Risk of overweight among adolescents who were breastfed as infants. JAMA. 2001;285(19):2461-2467.

Armstrong J Reilly JJ . Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity. Lancet. 2002;359(9322):2003-2004.

Arenz S Ruckerl R Koletzko B von Kries R . Breast-feeding and childhood obesity—a systematic review. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004;28(10):1247-1256.

Harder T Bergmann R Kallischnigg G Plagemann A . Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight: a meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;162(5):397-403.

Kent JC Mitoulas LR Cregan MD Ramsay DT Doherty DA Hartmann PE . Volume and frequency of breastfeedings and fat content of breast milk throughout the day. Pediatrics. 2006;117(3):e387-e395.

Savino F Fissore MF Liguori SA Oggero R . Can hormones contained in mothers’ milk account for the beneficial effect of breast-feeding on obesity in children? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2009;71(6):757-765.

Khan S . Short-Term Variations in Breastmilk Composition: Associations with Feeding Patterns. Perth, Australia: School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia; 2012.

Dewey KG Lonnerdal B . Infant self-regulation of breast milk intake. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1986;75(6):893-898.

Ramsay DT Kent JC Owens RA Hartmann PE . Ultrasound imaging of milk ejection in the breast of lactating women. Pediatrics. 2004;113(2):361-367.

Miralles O Sanchez J Palou A Pico C . A physiological role of breast milk leptin in body weight control in developing infants. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14(8):1371-1377.

Dundar NO Anal O Dundar B Ozkan H Caliskan S Buyukgebiz A . Longitudinal investigation of the relationship between breast milk leptin levels and growth in breast-fed infants. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2005;18(2):181-187.

Ozanne SE Hales CN . Lifespan: catch-up growth and obesity in male mice. Nature. 2004;427(6973):411-412.

Nommsen-Rivers LA Dewey KG . Growth of breastfed infants. Breastfeed Med. 2009;4(suppl 1):S45-S49.

Cesur G Ozguner F Yilmaz N Dundar B . The relationship between ghrelin and adiponectin levels in breast milk and infant serum and growth of infants during early postnatal life. J Physiol Sci. 2012;62(3):185-190.

Yarandi SS Hebbar G Sauer CG Cole CR Ziegler TR . Diverse roles of leptin in the gastrointestinal tract: modulation of motility, absorption, growth, and inflammation. Nutrition. 2011;27(3):269-275.

Rolland-Cachera MF Deheeger M Akrout M Bellisle F . Influence of macronutrients on adiposity development: a follow up study of nutrition and growth from 10 months to 8 years of age. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1995;19(8):573-578.

Scaglioni S Agostoni C Notaris RD . Early macronutrient intake and overweight at five years of age. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24(6):777-781.

Turck D Grillon C Lachambre E . Adequacy and safety of an infant formula with a protein/energy ratio of 1.8 g/100 kcal and enhanced protein efficiency for term infants during the first 4 months of life. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;43(3):364-371.

World Health Organization. Diet, Nutrition, and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases: Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2003.

Michaelsen KF Greer FR . Protein needs early in life and long-term health [published online January 22, 2014]. Am J Clin Nutr. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.072603.

Frank A Bruhn JC Lawrence CM . Distribution of protein in California milk in 1983. J Dairy Sci. 1988;71:2373.

Hassiotou F Geddes D . Anatomy of the human mammary gland: current status of knowledge. Clin Anat. 2013;26(1):29-48.

Khoshoo V Brown S . Gastric emptying of two whey-based formulas of different energy density and its clinical implication in children with volume intolerance. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2002;56(7):656-658.

Thorkelsson T Mimouni F Namgung R Fernandez-Ulloa M Krug-Wispe S Tsang RC . Similar gastric emptying rates for casein- and whey-predominant formulas in preterm infants. Pediatr Res. 1994;36(3):329-333.

Harrison GG Graver EJ Vargas M Churella HR Paule CL . Growth and adiposity of term infants fed whey-predominant or casein-predominant formulas or human milk. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1987;6(5):739-747.

Tolia V Lin CH Kuhns LR . Gastric emptying using three different formulas in infants with gastroesophageal reflux. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1992;15(3):297-301.

Billeaud C Guillet J Sandler B . Gastric emptying in infants with or without gastroesophageal reflux according to the type of milk. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1990;44:577-583.

Siegel M Krantz B Lebenthal E . Effect of fat and carbohydrate composition on the gastric emptying of isocaloric feedings in premature infants. Gastroenterology. 1985;89(4):785-790.

Salvia G De Vizia B Manguso F . Effect of intragastric volume and osmolality on mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux in children with gastroesophageal reflux disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001;96(6):1725-1732.

Agostoni C Carratu B Boniglia C Riva E Sanzini E . Free amino acid content in standard infant formulas: comparison with human milk. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000;19(4):434-438.

Doneray H Orbak Z Yildiz L . The relationship between breast milk leptin and neonatal weight gain. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98(4):643-647.

Savino F Liguori SA Oggero R Silvestro L Miniero R . Maternal BMI and serum leptin concentration of infants in the first year of life. Acta Paediatr. 2006;95(4):414-418.

Li R Magadia J Fein SB Grummer-Strawn LM . Risk of bottle-feeding for rapid weight gain during the first year of life. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166(5):431-436.

Bergmann KE Bergmann RL Von Kries R . Early determinants of childhood overweight and adiposity in a birth cohort study: role of breast-feeding. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003;27(2):162-172.

Li R Fein SB Grummer-Strawn LM . Association of breastfeeding intensity and bottle-emptying behaviors at early infancy with infants’ risk for excess weight at late infancy. Pediatrics. 2008;122(suppl 2):S77-S84.

Woolridge MW Baum JD Drewett RF . Does a change in the composition of human milk affect sucking patterns and milk intake? Lancet. 1980;2(8207):1292-1293.

Nysenbaum AN Smart JL . Sucking behaviour and milk intake of neonates in relation to milk fat content. Early Hum Dev. 1982;6(2):205-213.

Woolridge MW Ingram JC Baum JD . Do changes in pattern of breast usage alter the baby’s nutrient intake? Lancet. 1990;336(8712):395-397.

Karatas Z Durmus Aydogdu S Dinleyici EC Colak O Dogruel N . Breastmilk ghrelin, leptin, and fat levels changing foremilk to hindmilk: is that important for self-control of feeding? Eur J Pediatr. 2011;170(10):1273-1280.

Inui A Asakawa A Bowers CY . Ghrelin, appetite, and gastric motility: the emerging role of the stomach as an endocrine organ. FASEB J. 2004;18(3):439-456.

Van Den Driessche M Peeters K Marien P Ghoos Y Devlieger H Veereman-Wauters G . Gastric emptying in formula-fed and breast-fed infants measured with the 13C-octanoic acid breath test. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1999;29(1):46-51.

Lopez Alvarez MJ . Proteins in human milk. Breastfeed Rev. 2007;15(1):5-16.

Clare DA Swaisgood HE . Bioactive milk peptides: a prospectus. J Dairy Sci. 2000;83(6):1187-1195.

Poth AG Deeth HC Alewood PF Holland JW . Analysis of the human casein phosphoproteome by 2-D electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF MS reveals new phosphoforms. J Proteome Res. 2008;7(11):5017-5027.

Horner KM Byrne NM Cleghorn GJ Naslund E King NA . The effects of weight loss strategies on gastric emptying and appetite control. Obes Rev. 2011;12(11):935-951.

Page KC Malik RE Ripple JA Anday EK . Maternal and postweaning diet interaction alters hypothalamic gene expression and modulates response to a high-fat diet in male offspring. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2009;297(4):R1049-R1057.

Claeyssens S Lavoinne A Fresel-Ragot M Bois-Joyeux B Chanez M Peret J . Metabolic changes in rats fed a low protein diet during post-weaning growth. Metabolism. 1990;39(7):676-681.

Michaelsen KF Larnkjaer A Molgaard C . Amount and quality of dietary proteins during the first two years of life in relation to NCD risk in adulthood. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2012;22(10):781-786.

Armstrong J Abraham EC Squair M Brogan Y Merewood A . Exclusive breastfeeding, complementary feeding, and food choices in UK infants [published online December 20, 2013]. J Hum Lact. doi:10.1177/0890334413516383

Kent JC . How breastfeeding works. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2007;52:564-570.