This study assessed the co-development of adversity and effortful control based on a sample of Mexican-origin youth (N = 674) and their parents. We used a four-wave longitudinal design and followed target participants from age 10 to 16. At each time point, we measured adversity experienced by the children and their parents and children’s effortful control (self- and parent-reported). We also assessed children’s shift-and-persist coping strategies at ages 14 and 16. Across time, we found slight decreases in child-adversity and slight increases in parent-adversity. Based on bivariate LGC analyses, we found that the strongest effects surfaced for child- (vs. parent-) adversity. Specifically, we found that greater increases in child-adversity were associated with greater decreases in effortful control from ages 10 to 16. Moreover, we found a positive association between initial levels of child-adversity and the slope of effortful control, as well as a cross-sectional negative association between child- and parent-adversity and effortful control (at age 10). We found no evidence of moderation by shift-and-persist coping strategies. In sum, our results suggest that, on average, Mexican-origin youth exposed to more adversity might experience more maladaptive change with respect to effortful control.
AllemandM.JobV.MroczekD. K. (2019). Self-control development in adolescence predicts love and work in adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117(3), 621–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000229
AthertonO. E.LawsonK. M.FerrerE.RobinsR. W. (2020a). The role of effortful control in the development of ADHD, ODD, and CD symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 118(6), 1226–1246. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000243
4.
AthertonO. E.LawsonK. M.RobinsR. W. (2020b). The development of effortful control from late childhood to young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(2), 417. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000283
5.
AthertonO. E.ZhengL. R.BleidornW.RobinsR. W. (2019). The codevelopment of effortful control and school behavioral problems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117(3), 659–673. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000201
BoggT.RobertsB. W. (2004). Conscientiousness and health-related behaviors: A meta-analysis of the leading behavioral contributors to mortality. Psychological Bulletin, 130(6), 887–919. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.6.887
8.
BonannoG. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?American Psychologist, 59(1), 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20
CapaldiD. M.RothbartM. K. (1992). Development and validation of an early adolescent temperament measure. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 12(2), 153–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431692012002002
11.
CarverC. S. (2005). Impulse and constraint: Perspectives from personality psychology, convergence with theory in other areas, and potential for integration. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(4), 312–333. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0904_2
12.
CervantesR. C.PadillaA. M.Salgado De SnyderN. (1990). Reliability and validity of thehispanic stress inventory. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 12(1), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863900121004
13.
CervantesR. C.PadillaA. M.Salgado de SnyderN. (1991). The hispanic stress inventory: A culturally relevant approach to psychosocial assessment. Psychological Assessment, 3(3), 438–447. https://doi.org/10.1037//1040-3590.3.3.438
14.
ChenE.McLeanK. C.MillerG. E. (2015). Shift-and-persist strategies: Associations with socioeconomic status and the regulation of inflammation among adolescents and their parents. Psychosomatic Medicine, 77(4), 371–382. https://doi.org/10.1097/psy.0000000000000157
15.
ChenE.MillerG. E. (2012). “Shift-and-persist” strategies: Why low socioeconomic status isn’t always bad for health. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(2), 135–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612436694
16.
ChristopheN. K.SteinG. L. (2021). Shift-&-Persist and discrimination predicting depression across the life course: An accelerated longitudinal design using MIDUSI-III. Development and Psychopathology. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421000146
17.
ColmanR. A.HardyS. A.AlbertM.RaffaelliM.CrockettL. (2006). Early predictors of self‐regulation in middle childhood. Infant and Child Development, 15(4), 421–437. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.469
18.
CongerR.CongerK.ElderG.Jr.LorenzF.SimonsR.WhitbeckL. (1992). A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. Child Development, 63(3), 526–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01644.x
19.
ConverseP. D.BeverageM. S.VaghefK.MooreL. S. (2018). Self-control overtime: Implications for work, relationship, and well-being outcomes. Journal of Research in Personality, 73, 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JRP.2017.11.002
20.
DamianR. I.AthertonO. E.LawsonK. M.RobinsR. W. (2020). The co-development of chores and effortful control among Mexican-origin youth and prospective work outcomes. Journal of Research in Personality, 84, 103883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2019.103883
21.
DuckworthA. L.KernM. L. (2011). A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(3), 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.004
22.
ElderG. H.CongerR. D. (2000). Children of the land: Adversity and success in rural America. University of Chicago Press.
23.
EllisL. K.RothbartM. K. (2001, April). Revision of the early adolescent temperament Questionnaire. [Poster presented]. Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Minneapolis, MN.
24.
EversA. W.KraaimaatF. W.van LankveldW.JongenP. J.JacobsJ. W.BijlsmaJ. W. (2001). Beyond unfavorable thinking: The illness cognition questionnaire for chronic diseases. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 1026–1036. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.69.6.1026
25.
GonzalesN. A.DeardorffJ.FormosoD.BarrA.BarreraM.Jr. (2006). Family mediators of the relation between acculturation and adolescent mental health. Family Relations, 55(3), 318–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2006.00405.x
26.
GonzalesN. A.GunnoeM. L.SamaniegoR. Y. (1995, June 14–17). Validation of a stress schedule for adolescents living in multiethnic urban environments. In Biennial conference of the society for community research and action, Chicago, IL.
27.
HackmanD. A.GallopR.EvansG. W.FarahM. J. (2015). Socioeconomic status and executive function: Developmental trajectories and mediation. Developmental Science, 18(5), 686–702. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12246
28.
HeppnerP. P.WeiM.NevilleH. A.Kanagui-MuñozM. (2014). A cultural and contextual model of coping. In APA handbook of multicultural psychology, Vol. 2: Applications and training. (pp. 83-106). American Psychological Association
29.
HillN. (2008). The law of success: The master wealth-Builder’s complete and original lesson plan for achieving your dreams. Penguin.
30.
JayawickremeE.BlackieL. E. (2014). Post–traumatic growth as positive personality change: Evidence, controversies and future directions. European Journal of Personality, 28(4), 312-331. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1963
31.
La GrecaA. M.SilvermanW. K.LaiB.JaccardJ. (2010). Hurricane-related exposure experiences and stressors, other life events, and social support: Concurrent and prospective impact on children’s persistent posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78(6), 794–805. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020775
32.
La GrecaA. M.SilvermanW. K.VernbergE. M.PrinsteinM. J. (1996). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in children after Hurricane Andrew: A prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(4), 712–723. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.64.4.712
33.
LecheileB. M.SpinradT. L.XuX.LopezJ.EisenbergN. (2020). Longitudinal relations among household chaos, SES, and effortful control in the prediction of language skills in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 56(4), 727–738. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000896
34.
LenguaL. J. (2006). Growth in temperament and parenting as predictors of adjustment during children’s transition to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 819–832. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.819
35.
LenguaL. J.HonoradoE.BushN. R. (2007). Contextual risk and parenting as predictors of effortful control and social competence in preschool children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28(1), 40–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2006.10.001
36.
LenguaL. J.MoranL.ZalewskiM.RuberryE.KiffC.ThompsonS. (2015). Relations of growth in effortful control to family income, cumulative risk, and adjustment in preschool-age children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(4), 705–720. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9941-2
37.
Li-GriningC. P. (2007). Effortful control among low-income preschoolers in three cities: Stability, change, and individual differences. Developmental Psychology, 43(1), 208–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.208
38.
LittleT. D.CardN. A.PreacherK. J.McConnellE. (2009). Modeling longitudinal data from research on adolescence. In SteinbergL. (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology: Individual bases of adolescent development (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 15–54). Wiley.
39.
LittleT. D.CunninghamW. A.ShaharG.WidamanK. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1
40.
LittleT. D.RhemtullaM.GibsonK.SchoemannA. M. (2013). Why the items versus parcel controvery needn’t be one. Psychological Methods, 18(3), 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033266
41.
LutharS. S.CicchettiD. (2000). The construct of resilience: Implications for interventions and social policies. Development and Psychopathology, 12(4), 857–885. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579400004156
42.
MastenA. S.NarayanA. J.SilvermanW. K.OsofskyJ. D. (2015). Children in War and Disaster. In LernerR. M. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science. Wiley
43.
MastenA. S.CicchettiD. (2016). Resilience in development: Progress and transformation. In CicchettiD. (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, resilience, and intervention (pp. 271–333). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
44.
MastenA. S.NarayanA. J. (2012). Child development in the context of disaster, war, and terrorism: pathways of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), 227–257. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100356
45.
McAdamsD. P. (2006). The redemptive self: Generativity and the stories Americans live by. Research in Human Development, 3(2–3), 81–100. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15427617rhd0302&3_2
46.
MeyersonD. A.GrantK. E.CarterJ. S.KilmerR. P. (2011). Posttraumatic growth among children and adolescents: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(6), 949–964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.06.003
47.
MoffittT. E.ArseneaultL.BelskyD.DicksonN.HancoxR. J.HarringtonH. L.HoutsR.PoultonR.RobertsB. W.RossS.SearsM. R.Murray ThomsonW.CaspiA. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108
48.
MoilanenK.ShawD.DishionT.GardnerF.WilsonM. (2009). Predictors of Longitudinal growth in inhibitory control in early childhood. Social Development (Oxford, England), 19(2), 326–347. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00536.x
PatersonT. A.HarmsP. D.SteelP.CredéM. (2016). An assessment of the magnitude of effect sizes: Evidence from 30 years of meta-analysis in management. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 23(1), 66–81https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051815614321.
51.
PenleyJ. A.TomakaJ.WiebeJ. S. (2002). The association of coping to physical and psychological health outcomes: A metaanalytic review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25(6), 551–603. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1020641400589
52.
PratiG.PietrantoniL. (2009). Optimism, social support, and coping strategies as factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 14(5), 364–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325020902724271
53.
RaverC. C.BlairC.WilloughbyM. (2013). Poverty as a predictor of 4-year-olds’ executive function: New perspectives on models of differential susceptibility. Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 292–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028343
54.
RobertsB. W.LejuezC.KruegerR. F.RichardsJ. M.HillP. L. (2014). What is conscientiousness and how can it be assessed?Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1315–1330. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031109
55.
RobertsB. W.WaltonK. E.BoggT. (2005). Conscientiousness and health across the life course. Review of General Psychology, 9(2), 156–168. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.156
56.
SandlerI. N.TeinJ.-Y.MehtaP.WolchikS. A.AyersT. S. (2000). Coping efficacyand psychological problems of children of divorce. Child Development, 71(4), 1099–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00212
ScheierM. F.CarverC. S.BridgesM. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism fromneuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(6), 1063–1078. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.67.6.1063
59.
SeeryM. D.HolmanE. A.SilverR. C. (2010). Whatever does not kill us: Cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(6), 1025–1041. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021344
60.
StaabJ. P.FullertonC. S.UrsanoR. (1999). A critical look at PTSD: Constructs, concepts, epidemiology, and implications. In Response to disaster: Psychosocial, community, and ecological approaches, (pp. 101–127). Routledge.
61.
SteinG. L.JensenM.ChristopherN. K.CruzR. A.RomeroM. M.RobinsR. W. (in press). Shift and persist in Mexican-American youth: A longitudinal test of depressive symptoms. Journal of Research on Adolescence.
62.
SumnerR.BurrowA. L.HillP. L. (2018). The development of purpose in life among adolescents who experience marginalization: potential opportunities and obstacles. American Psychologist, 73(6), 740–752. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000249
63.
TaylorZ. E.WidamanK. F.RobinsR. W. (2018). Longitudinal relations of economic hardship and effortful control to active coping in Latino youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 28(2), 396–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12338
64.
TedeschiR. G.CalhounL. G. (2004). Target article: “Post-traumatic Growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence”. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1501_01
65.
Van den AkkerA. L.DekovićM.AsscherJ.PrinzieP. (2014). Mean-level personality development across childhood and adolescence: A temporary defiance of the maturity principle and bidirectional associations with parenting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(4), 736–750. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037248
66.
Vanderbilt-AdrianceE.ShawD. S. (2008). Conceptualizing and re-evaluating resilience across levels of risk, time, and domains of competence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11(1–2), 30–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-008-0031-2
67.
WidamanK. F.FerrerE.CongerR. D. (2010). Factorial invariance with longitudinal structural equation models: Measuring the same construct across time. Child Development Perspectives, 4(1), 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00110.x
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
