To systematically summarize the experimental effects of exercise on cognitive-related memory function among young to middle-aged adults, which has yet to be done in the literature.
Data Source:
PubMed.
Study Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria:
Studies were included if they were published in the English language, indexed in PubMed, employed an experimental study design (eg, traditional parallel group randomized controlled trial: either acute intervention or chronic/training intervention study), and conducted among human adults. Studies were excluded if nonhumans (ie, animal models) were studied, if children/adolescents (<18 years) or older adults (>50 years) were evaluated, and if select chronic diseases (eg, diabetes and dementia) were present.
Data Extraction:
A systematic review approach was employed.
Data Synthesis:
An extraction table was created synthesizing the key results, and recommendations for future research are emphasized.
Results:
Among the 17 evaluated studies, 2 were published before the year 2000 (ie, 1998 and 1999), 2 were published in 2007, and the remaining 13 were published in the years 2011 and beyond. This highlights the emergence of this research topic within this age-group (young to middle-aged adults). Among the 17 evaluated studies, 14 were conducted among healthy samples, with 3 conducted among those with a diagnosis of depression. Among the 17 studies, 4 employed a chronic training protocol, with 13 utilizing an acute exercise protocol. Among the 3 experimental studies in the depressed population, all demonstrated a favorable effect of exercise on memory function. Among the 14 trials in the nondepressed population, 10 (71%) demonstrated a favorable effect of exercise on some aspect of memory function.
Conclusion:
Acute and chronic exercise appears to play a pronounced effect on memory function among young to middle-aged adults. Implications and recommendations for future research are outlined in this systematic review.
KuiperJSOude VoshaarRCZuidemaSUStolkRPZuidersmaMSmidtN. The relationship between social functioning and subjective memory complaints in older persons: a population-based longitudinal cohort study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2017;32(10):1059–1071.
2.
SohrabiHRBatesKARodriguesM. The relationship between memory complaints, perceived quality of life and mental health in apolipoprotein epsilon4 carriers and non-carriers. J Alzheimers Dis. 2009;17(1):69–79.
3.
StraubeB. An overview of the neuro-cognitive processes involved in the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of true and false memories. Behav Brain Funct. 2012;8:35.
4.
CahillLMcGaughJL. Amygdaloid complex lesions differentially affect retention of tasks using appetitive and aversive reinforcement. Behav Neurosci. 1990;104(4):532–543.
5.
SchacterDL. Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind and the Past. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1996.
6.
HamannSBCahillLSquireLR. Emotional perception and memory in amnesia. Neuropsychology. 1997;11(1):104–113.
7.
CahillLPrinsBWeberMMcGaughJL. Beta-adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature. 1994;371(6499):702–704.
8.
CahillLMcGaughJL. A novel demonstration of enhanced memory associated with emotional arousal. Conscious Cogn. 1995;4(4):410–421.
9.
MatherMSutherlandMR. Arousal-biased competition in perception and memory. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2011;6(2):114–133.
10.
LoprinziPDHerodSMCardinalBJNoakesTD. Physical activity and the brain: a review of this dynamic, bi-directional relationship. Brain Res. 2013;1539:95–104.
11.
LynchMA. Long-term potentiation and memory. Physiol Rev. 2004;84(1):87–136.
12.
LomoT. The discovery of long-term potentiation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2003;358(1432):617–620.
13.
FreyUMorrisRG. Synaptic tagging and long-term potentiation. Nature. 1997;385(6616):533–536.
14.
ChenMJRusso-NeustadtAA. Running exercise-induced up-regulation of hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor is CREB-dependent. Hippocampus. 2009;19(10):962–972.
15.
CuppiniRSartiniSAgostiniD. Bdnf expression in rat skeletal muscle after acute or repeated exercise. Arch Ital Biol. 2007;145(2):99–110.
16.
BerchtoldNCChinnGChouMKesslakJPCotmanCW. Exercise primes a molecular memory for brain-derived neurotrophic factor protein induction in the rat hippocampus. Neuroscience. 2005;133(3):853–861.
17.
OliffHSBerchtoldNCIsacksonPCotmanCW. Exercise-induced regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) transcripts in the rat hippocampus. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1998;61(1-2):147–153.
18.
KnaepenKGoekintMHeymanEMMeeusenR. Neuroplasticity—exercise-induced response of peripheral brain-derived neurotrophic factor: a systematic review of experimental studies in human subjects. Sports Med. 2010;40(9):765–801.
19.
WhitlockJRHeynenAJShulerMGBearMF. Learning induces long-term potentiation in the hippocampus. Science. 2006;313(5790):1093–1097.
20.
Rioult-PedottiMSFriedmanDHessGDonoghueJP. Strengthening of horizontal cortical connections following skill learning. Nat Neurosci. 1998;1(3):230–234.
21.
MorrisRGFreyU. Hippocampal synaptic plasticity: role in spatial learning or the automatic recording of attended experience?Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1997;352(1360):1489–1503.
22.
Gomez-PinillaFHillmanC. The influence of exercise on cognitive abilities. Compr Physiol. 2013;3(1):403–428.
23.
TomporowskiPDLambourneKOkumuraMS. Physical activity interventions and children’s mental function: an introduction and overview. Prev Med. 2011;52(suppl 1):S3–S9.
24.
BhererLEricksonKILiu-AmbroseT. A review of the effects of physical activity and exercise on cognitive and brain functions in older adults. J Aging Res. 2013;2013:657508.
25.
Kirk-SanchezNJMcGoughEL. Physical exercise and cognitive performance in the elderly: current perspectives. Clin Interv Aging. 2014;9:51–62.
26.
GatesNJSachdevPSFiatarone SinghMAValenzuelaM. Cognitive and memory training in adults at risk of dementia: a systematic review. BMC Geriatr. 2011;11:55.
27.
LuJFuWLiuY. Physical activity and cognitive function among older adults in China: a systematic review. J Sport Health Sci. 2016;5(3):287–296.
28.
FirthJStubbsBRosenbaumS. Aerobic exercise improves cognitive functioning in people with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull. 2017;43(3):546–556.
29.
GajewskiPDFalkensteinM. Physical activity and neurocognitive functioning in aging—a condensed updated review. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2016;13:1.
30.
OhmanHSavikkoNStrandbergTEPitkalaKH. Effect of physical exercise on cognitive performance in older adults with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: a systematic review. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2014;38(5-6):347–365.
31.
KramerAFEricksonKIColcombeSJ. Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2006;101(4):1237–1242.
32.
ColcombeSKramerAF. Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychol Sci. 2003;14(2):125–130.
33.
SalthouseTA. When does age-related cognitive decline begin?Neurobiol Aging. 2009;30(4):507–514.
34.
KaufmanASHornJL. Age changes on tests of fluid and crystallized ability for women and men on the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) at ages 17-94 years. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 1996;11(2):97–121.
35.
BrockmoleJRLogieRH. Age-related change in visual working memory: a study of 55,753 participants aged 8-75. Front Psychol. 2013;4:12.
36.
KroghJVidebechPThomsenCGluudCNordentoftM. DEMO-II trial. Aerobic exercise versus stretching exercise in patients with major depression—a randomised clinical trial. PLoS One. 2012;7(10):e48316.
37.
BermanMGKrossEKrpanKM. Interacting with nature improves cognition and affect for individuals with depression. J Affect Disord. 2012;140(3):300–305.
38.
GreerTLGrannemannBDChansardMKarimAITrivediMH. Dose-dependent changes in cognitive function with exercise augmentation for major depression: results from the TREAD study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015;25(2):248–256.
39.
LibkumanTMNichols-WhiteheadPGriffithJThomasR. Source of arousal and memory for detail. Mem Cognit. 1999;27(1):166–190.
40.
CovassinTWeissLPowellJWomackC. Effects of a maximal exercise test on neurocognitive function. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41(6):370–374; discussion 374.
41.
LoprinziPDKaneCJ. Exercise and cognitive function: a randomized controlled trial examining acute exercise and free-living physical activity and sedentary effects. Mayo Clin Proc. 2015;90(4):450–460.
42.
BantoftCSummersMJTranentPJPalmerMACooleyPDPedersenSJ. Effect of standing or walking at a workstation on cognitive function: a randomized counterbalanced trial. Hum Factors. 2016;58(1):140–149.
43.
MilesCHardmanE. State-dependent memory produced by aerobic exercise. Ergonomics. 1998;41(1):20–28.
44.
SibleyBABeilockSL. Exercise and working memory: an individual differences investigation. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007;29(6):783–791.
45.
LabbanJDEtnierJL. Effects of acute exercise on long-term memory. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2011;82(4):712–721.
46.
MoreauDMorrisonABConwayAR. An ecological approach to cognitive enhancement: complex motor training. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2015;157:44–55.
47.
HwangJCastelliDMGonzalez-LimaF. Cognitive enhancement by transcranial laser stimulation and acute aerobic exercise. Lasers Med Sci. 2016;31(6):1151–1160.
48.
HottingKReichBHolzschneiderK. Differential cognitive effects of cycling versus stretching/coordination training in middle-aged adults. Health Psychol. 2012;31(2):145–155.
49.
GotheNPontifexMBHillmanCMcAuleyE. The acute effects of yoga on executive function. J Phys Act Health. 2013;10(4):488–495.
50.
NandaBBaldeJManjunathaS. The acute effects of a single bout of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive functions in healthy adult males. J Clin Diagn Res. 2013;7(9):1883–1885.
51.
McNerneyMWRadvanskyGA. Mind racing: the influence of exercise on long-term memory consolidation. Memory. 2015;23(8):1140–1151.
52.
BassoJCShangAElmanMKarmoutaRSuzukiWA. Acute exercise improves prefrontal cortex but not hippocampal function in healthy adults. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2015;21(10):791–801.
53.
ZenkoZEkkekakisPArielyD. Can you have your vigorous exercise and enjoy it too? Ramping intensity down increases postexercise, remembered, and forecasted pleasure. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2016;38(2):149–159.
54.
van DongenEVKerstenIHWagnerICMorrisRGFernandezG. Physical exercise performed four hours after learning improves memory retention and increases hippocampal pattern similarity during retrieval. Curr Biol. 2016;26(13):1722–1727.
55.
WeinbergLHasniAShinoharaMDuarteA. A single bout of resistance exercise can enhance episodic memory performance. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2014;153:13–19.
56.
GuoWWangBLuYZhuQShiZRenJ. The relationship between different exercise modes and visuospatial working memory in older adults: a cross-sectional study. PeerJ. 2016;4:e2254.
57.
ChekeLGClaytonNS. Do different tests of episodic memory produce consistent results in human adults?Learn Mem. 2013;20(9):491–498.
58.
QuakMLondonRETalsmaD. A multisensory perspective of working memory. Front Hum Neurosci. 2015;9:197.
59.
ShamsLSeitzAR. Benefits of multisensory learning. Trends Cogn Sci. 2008;12(11):411–417.
60.
DeeseJ. On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall. J Exp Psychol. 1959;58(1):17–22.
61.
RoedigerHLMcDermottKB. Creating false memories: remembering words not presented in lists. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1995;21(4):803–814.
62.
DudaiY. In: Memory: A to Z. Oxford University Press; 2004:158–160.
63.
HertzogC. Improving memory: the possible roles of metamemory. In: HermannDJWeingartnerHSearlemanAMcEvoyC, eds. Memory Improvement: Implications for Memory Theory. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1992:61–78.
64.
UnderwoodBJ. Individual and group predictions of item difficulty for free learning. J Exp Psychol. 1966;71(5):673–679.
65.
ArbuckleTYCuddyLL. Discrimination of item strength at time of presentation. J Exp Psychol. 1969;81(1):126–131.
66.
HartJT. Memory and the feeling-of-knowing experience. J Educ Psychol. 1965;56(4):208–216.
67.
DewarMTCowanNSalaSD. Forgetting due to retroactive interference: a fusion of Muller and Pilzecker’s (1900) early insights into everyday forgetting and recent research on anterograde amnesia. Cortex. 2007;43(5):616–634.
68.
GluckMAShohamyDMyersC. How do people solve the “weather prediction” task?: individual variability in strategies for probabilistic category learning. Learn Mem. 2002;9(6):408–418.
69.
KnowltonBJMangelsJASquireLR. A neostriatal habit learning system in humans. Science. 1996;273(5280):1399–1402.
70.
HarlowHF. The formation of learning sets. Psychol Rev. 1949;56(1):51–65.
71.
DudaiY.Prospective memory. In: Memory: From A to Z. Oxford University Press; 2004:202–203.
72.
BuchananTW. Retrieval of emotional memories. Psychol Bull. 2007;133(5):761–779.
73.
AraujoPCOQuinesCBJardimNSLeiteMRNogueiraCW. Resistance exercise reduces memory impairment induced by monosodium glutamate in male and female rats. Exp Physiol. 2017;102(7):845–853.
74.
LambergEMMuratoriLM. Cell phones change the way we walk. Gait Posture. 2012;35(4):688–690.
75.
NguyenKMcDanielMA. The JOIs of text comprehension: supplementing retrieval practice to enhance inference performance. J Exp Psychol Appl. 2016;22(1):59–71.
76.
DudaiY.Priming. In: Memory: From A to Z. Oxford University Press; 2004:200–202.
77.
O’KeefeJ. A review of the hippocampal place cells. Prog Neurobiol. 1979;13(4):419–439.
78.
MillerJFNeufangMSolwayA. Neural activity in human hippocampal formation reveals the spatial context of retrieved memories. Science. 2013;342(6162):1111–1114.
79.
NiediekJBainJ. Human single-unit recordings reveal a link between place-cells and episodic memory. Front Syst Neurosci. 2014;8:158.
