The period between March 1990 and June 1993 represents the critical window for European Union (EU)—Baltic relations. During this time Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania laid the foundation for future EU membership. For its part, the European community made a commitment to include the three republics in the process of enlargement. This paper traces the beginnings of EU—Baltic cooperation and examines factors that led to growing political and economic convergence. Nordic membership in the EU, ex-Soviet troop withdrawal, and Russian parliamentary elections were instrumental in bringing both sides together on the road to enlargement, but collective guilt provided the underlying rationale. In this paper, the author argues that it is impossible to understand fully this process of convergence without taking into account the connotations and consequences of the “black trinity”: the Munich pact, the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, and the Yalta agreement.
For the purposes of this paper, I use the terms "EC" and "EU" interchangeably, although, when referring to the pre-Maastricht period, I prefer to use "EC."
2.
Sven Arnswald , EU Enlargement and the Baltic States: The Incremental Making of New Members (Helsinki: The Finnish Institute of International Affairs, 2000); Irena Brinar and Marjan Svetličič , "Enlargement of the European Union: The Case of Slovenia," Journal of European Public Policy6:5( 1999): 802-21; Judith Kelley, Ethnic Politics in Europe: The Power of Norms and Incentives ( Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004); Renata Stawarska, "EU Enlargement from the Polish Perspective ," Journal of European Public Policy6:5(1999): 822-38.
3.
In the theoretical part of this paper, I purposely expand the discussion to the East European level because EU-Baltic relations were in many ways shaped by the larger context of Eastern enlargement.
4.
Ulrich Sedelmeier, "Eastern Enlargement: Risk, Rationality and Role-Compliance," In Frank Schimmelfennig and Ulrich Sedelmeier, eds., The Politics of European Union Enlargement: Theoretical Approaches (London: Routledge, 2005): 120-41.
5.
John O'Brennan, The Eastern Enlargement of the European Union (London: Routledge, 2006), 170.
6.
Andrew Moravcsik, The Choice for Europe: Social Purpose and State Power from Messina to Maastricht (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998), 3-9.
7.
Frank Schimmelfennig , "The Community Trap: Liberal Norms, Rhetorical Action, and the Eastern Enlargement of the European Union," International Organization55:1(2001): 49.
8.
Karen Smith, The Making of EU Foreign Policy: The Case of Eastern Europe ( New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998 ), 121.
9.
Judith Kelley, Ethnic Politics in Europe, 176-86.
10.
Frank Schimmelfennig , "Strategic Action in a Community Environment: The Decision to Enlarge the European Union to the East," Comparative Political Studies36:1/2(2003): 159.
11.
Frank Schimmelfennig , "The Community Trap: Liberal Norms, Rhetorical Action, and the Eastern Enlargement of the European Union," International Organization55:1(2001): 75.
12.
Hannah Arendt , "Collective Responsibility," In James W. Bernauer, ed., Amor Mundi: Explorations in the Faith and Thought of Hannah Arendt (Boston, Mass .: Martinus Nijhoff, 1987): 43-50; Karl Jaspers, The Question of German Guilt (New York: Fordham University Press, 1948), 25.
13.
I define norms as "collective expectations for the proper behavior of actors." See Peter Katzenstein , The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 5.
14.
"Resolution on the Situation in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania ," European Parliament, 13 January 1983, Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs archives.
15.
"Pravda Accuses European Lawmakers of Interference," The Xinhua General Overseas News Service, 11 March 1989, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
16.
R. Mekaite, ed., Lietuvos ir Europos Sajungos Santykių Dešimtmetis: Faktai ir Dokumentai 1990-1999 [A Decade of Lithuanian-EU Relations: Facts and Documents 1990-1999], Europos Integracijos Studijų Centras [EU Integration Research Centre], ( Vilnius: Eugrimas, 2001), 13.
17.
Justas Paleckis, ed., Lietuva Pasaulio Galingujų Akiratyje 1988-1991 [Lithuania in the View of the World's Mighty 1988-1991] , (Vilnius: Algimantas, 2005), 326.
18.
Jacek Saryusz-Wolski, "The Reintegration of the `Old Continent': Avoiding the Costs of Half Europe," In Simon Bulmer and Andrew Scott, Economic and Political Integration in Europe: Internal Dynamics and Global Context ( Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1994 ), 20-23.
19.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 24, EC 1/2-1991 ( Brussels: EEC, 1991), 103.
20.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 24, EC 1/2-1991 ( Brussels: EEC, 1991), 97.
21.
Vytautas Landsbergis , Lithuania Independent Again ( Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000), 259.
22.
Dzintra Bungs , "TASS Criticizes EC Reaction to Soviet Actions in the Baltics," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 27, 7 February 1991, http://www.friends-partners.org .
23.
Dzintra Bungs , "Swedish Foreign Ministry Envoy to Latvia," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 15, 22 January 1991, http://www.friends-partners.org.
24.
Saulius Girnius , "Swedish Visits to Lithuania," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 18, 25 January 1991, http://www.friends-partners.org.
25.
In line with this recognition, Sweden repatriated by force a number of Baltic refugees back to the Soviet Union. The impact of these historical events on the Swedish political elite cannot be overlooked. A number of commentators recognized that in the 1990s Sweden was trying "to shed its guilt over having recognized the annexation of the Baltics five decades ago" ( Anika Savill, "The Heirs of the Hanseatic League Cast around for a New Relationship," The Independent, 4 September 1991, 7). After the Baltics gained independence, Sweden became one of the most active and consistent supporters of the Baltic states.
Saulius Girnius , "Baltic Leaders in Brussels," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 103, 3 June 1991 , http://www.friends-partners.org.
28.
Justas Paleckis, ed., Lietuva Pasaulio Galingųjų Akiratyje 1988-1991 [Lithuania in the View of the World's Mighty, 1988-1991], 139.
29.
In his memoirs "Le Fil et la Pelote, Mémoires," Roland Dumas states that French moral debt to the Baltic states has been considerable. He acknowledges the guilt of previous French governments for the fate of the three republics and even denotes them (the Baltic states) as martyrs.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 24, EC 6-1991 ( Brussels: EEC, 1991), 13.
32.
Lionel Barber , David Gardner, Alison Maitland, "After the Coup: Western States Hold Their Fire on Recognition," The Financial Times, 24 August 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
33.
James Hardy , "UK Will Not Block Recognition of Baltic States ," Press Association, 26 August 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
34.
Mekaite, ed., Lietuvos ir Europos Sąjungos Santykių Dešimtmetis, 104.
35.
"EC Declaration Recognizing Baltics' Independence," The Associated Press, 27 August 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
36.
Sven Arnswald, EU Enlargement and the Baltic States, 29.
37.
"Baltic States: EC Agree to Recognize `Restored Sovereignty'"Inter Press Service, 27 August 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe . Since the first East European countries expressed their desire to join the European Community, the German political establishment continuously supported the idea of Eastern enlargement. It was viewed as a historical responsibility or in the words of German foreign minister Joschka Fischer, "an act of historical justice" (see Lisbeth Kirk "Fisher Apologizes for Nazi Germany," EUObserver.com, 19 October 2000, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe).
38.
Ian Davidson and Ivo Dawnay, "Major Urges EC to Admit East European States; Landmark Speech Highlights Rift Between Britain and France," The Financial Times, 13 September 1991, 1. LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
39.
"Eurobarometer: Public Opinion Backs Baltic States' Membership of EEC," European Information Service, No 1709, 5 October 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
40.
"In Brief, European Report," Europe Information Service, No. 1701, 7 September 1991 , LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
41.
"Baltic States and European Community to Seek Speedy Trade Agreement ," Agence France Presse, 9 September 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
42.
Didier Pennequin , "Estonia Sets Three-year Target for Market Economy Leading to EC Status," Agence France Presse, 11 September 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
43.
Saulius Girnius , "EC Membership Top Foreign Policy Goal," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 184, 26 September 1991, http://www.friends-partners.org.
44.
Dzintra Bungs , "Latvia Will Not Join Soviet Economic Union ," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 193, 10 October 1991, http://www.friends-partners.org .
45.
David Buchan , "The Soviet Break-up; EC Seeks Gradual Links with Baltics," The Financial Times, 10 September 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
46.
David Buchan and David Gardner, "A New Wave of Eastern Approaches," The Financial Times, 6 September 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
47.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 25, EC 5-1992 ( Brussels: EEC, 1992), 81.
48.
"Declaration of Ministers of the Group of 24 Countries on Coordinated Economic Assistance to the Countries of Central and Eastern Europe," Commission of the European Communities , Press Release-IP; 994, 11 November 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
49.
Mark Lawrence , "EC Condemns U.S., Japan of Shirking Eastern Europe Responsibility," The Associated Press, 11 November 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe.
50.
"XXVth General Report on the Activities of the EC," Commission of the European Communities (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1992), 261.
51.
"XXVIth General Report on the Activities of the EC," Commission of the European Communities (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1993), 27.
52.
Ibid., 260.
53.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 25, EC 9-1992 ( Brussels: EEC, 1992), 71.
54.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 25, EC 12-1992 ( Brussels: EEC, 1992), 142.
55.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 26, EC 3-1993 ( Brussels: EEC, 1993), 97.
56.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 26, EC 6-1993 ( Brussels: EEC, 1993), 7.
57.
"Bulletin of the European Communities," Commission of the European Communities, Vol. 26, EC 12-1993 ( Brussels: EEC, 1993), 99.
58.
Sven Arnswald assigns a much more prominent role to the free trade agreements arguing that they (rather than the Copenhagen summit) were a first step toward EU membership. See Sven Arnswald, EU Enlargement and the Baltic States , 34-35.
59.
I do not include NATO on this list because in the early 1990s, at least formally, there was very little progress made toward integration.
60.
Robert Mauthner , "Baltic States Hit Troop Pull-out Snag," The Financial Times, 7 March 1992, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
61.
Dzintra Bungs , "Landsbergis Renews Call for Troop Withdrawal from Baltics," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 192, 09 October 1991, http://www.friends-partners.org .
62.
"French President in Baltic States," ITAR, qtd. in BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 23 May 1992, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
63.
Dzintra Bungs , "Bildt Urges Troop Withdrawal from the Baltics ," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 119, 25 June 1992, http://www.friends-partners.org .
64.
"Baltic States and European Community to Seek Speedy Trade Agreement ," Agence France Presse, 9 September 1991, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
65.
Zaneta Ozolina, "Nordic and the Baltic Countries: A Sub-region in the Making," qtd. in Atis Lejins and Daina Bleiere, eds., The Baltic States: Search for Security (Riga: Latvian Institute of International Affairs, 1996), 93.
66.
Ibid., 93-97.
67.
Vera Tolz, "Final Results of Parliamentary Elections," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 246, 27 December 1993, http://www.friends-partners.org.
68.
Saulius Girnius , "Baltic Reaction to Russian Election," RFE/RL Daily Report, No. 238, 14 December 1993, http://www.friends-partners.org.
69.
Mekaite, ed., Lietuvos ir Europos Sąjungos Santykių Dešimtmetis, 68.
70.
"Eastern Europe and Russia: What Should the European Union do next?" Address by Sir Leon Brittan, Commission of the European Communities, RAPID, 14 January 1994, LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe .
71.
Interview with Vytautas Landsbergis, 17 June 2005, Vilnius, Lithuania.
72.
Speaking on this topic, Landsbergis recalled a conversation with a high-ranking EU official on the economic transition challenges faced by Lithuania. When the official dismissed the issue as "your problem," Landsbergis pointed out that it was their historical fault that Lithuania is now a relatively poor country.
