Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2011-6
Policy Implications of the Effects of Maltreatment Type,Age,Recurrence,Severity,and Other Ecological Risks on Persistent Offending Among Disadvantaged Boys
Although research indicates that the presence of maltreatment affects delinquency when comparing maltreated with nonmaltreated children, studies examining maltreatment dimensions have been confounded by conceptual and methodological problems. This study featured within-group analyses that included methodological controls to examine effects of four maltreatment dimensions and other ecological risks on persistent youth offending among maltreated children. Results indicate that supervisory neglect, maltreatment recurrence, and maltreatment severity produce direct effects on persistent youth offending after controlling for individual and other environmental risks. Comparisons of effects indicate that supervisory neglect is the strongest predictor. The study highlights the value of an ecological approach in explaining the maltreatment/ delinquency link and discusses the implications for policy and research.
Ainsworth, M., & Eichberg, C. ( 1991). Effects on infant-mother attachment of mother’s unresolved loss of an attachment figure or other traumatic experience. In P. Marris, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & C. Parkes (Eds.), Attachment across the life cycle (pp. 160-186). New York: Routledge.
2.
Arata, C.A., Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Bowers, D., & O’Brien, N.O. (2007). Differential correlates of multi-type maltreatment among urban youth. Child Abuse & Neglect: The International Journal, 31, 393-415.
3.
Bandura, A. ( 1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, CA: Prentice-Hall.
4.
Barnett, D., Ganiban, J., & Cicchetti, D. ( 1999). Maltreatment, negative expressivity, and the development of type D attachments from 12 to 24 months of age. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64, 97-118.
5.
Barnett, D., Manly, J.T., & Cicchetti, D. ( 1993). Defining child maltreatment: The interface between policy and research. In D. Cicchetti & D. C. Knill (Eds.), Child abuse, child development, and social policy: Advances in applied developmental psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 7-73). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
6.
Belsky, J. ( 1980). Child maltreatment: An ecological integration . American Psychologist, 35, 320-355.
7.
Bolger, K.E., & Patterson, C.J. (2001). Developmental pathways from child maltreatment to peer rejection. Child Development , 72, 549-568.
8.
Bolger, K.E., Patterson, C.J., & Kupersmidt, J.B. (1998). Peer relationships and self-esteem among children who have been maltreated. Child Development, 69, 1171-1197.
9.
Bolton, F.G., Reich, J., & Gutierres, S.E. (1977). Delinquency patterns in maltreated children and siblings. Victimology, 2, 26-38.
10.
Bowlby, J. ( 1969). Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
11.
Bronfenbrenner, U. ( 1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development . American Psychologist, 32, 513-531.
12.
Bronfenbrenner, U. ( 1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
13.
Burgess, R.L., & Drais-Parrillo, A. (2005). An analysis of child maltreatment: From behavioral psychology to behavioral ecology. In R. L. Burgess & K. MacDonald (Eds.), Evolutionary perspectives on human development (pp. 305-330). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
14.
Burns, B.J., Mustillo, S.A., Farmer, E.M.Z., Kolko, D.J., McCrae, J.S., Libby, A.M., et al. (2009). Caregiver depression, mental health service use, and child outcomes. In M.Webb, K. Dowd, B. J. Harden , J. Landsverk, & M. Testa (Eds.), Child welfare and child well-being: New perspectives from the national survey of child and adolescent well-being. New York: Oxford University Press, 351-379.
15.
Carroll, A., Hemingway, F., Bower, J., Ashman, A., Houghton, A., & Durkin, S. ( 2006). Impulsivity in juvenile delinquency: Differences among early-onset, late-onset, and non-offenders. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 519-529.
16.
Carter, J., Sterk, C., & Hutson, R.Q. ( 1998). Evidence of a link between maltreatment and delinquency: A literature review. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved January 22, 2009, from http://www.gahsc.org/jcarter/litreview.htm
17.
Catalano, R.F., & Hawkins, J.D. ( 1996). The social developmental model: A theory of anti-social behavior. In J. D. Hawkins (Ed.), Delinquency and crime current theories (pp. 149-197). New York: Cambridge University Press.
18.
Cicchetti, D., & Barnett, D. ( 1991). Toward the development of a scientific nosology of child maltreatment. In W. Grove & D. Ciccheti (Eds.), Thinking clearly about psychology: Essays in honor of Paul E. Mecehl: Vol. 2. Personality and psychopathology (pp. 346-377). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
19.
Cicchetti, D., & Rizley, R. ( 1981). Developmental perspective on the etiology, intergenerational transmission, and sequelae of child maltreatment. In R. Rizley & D. Cicchetti (Eds.), Developmental perspectives in child maltreatment: New directions for child development (Vol. II, pp. 31-55). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
20.
Cicchetti, D., Toth, S.L., & Lynch, M. ( 1995). Bowlby’s dream comes full circle: The application of attachment theory to risk and psychopathology. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 1-75.
21.
Claussen, A.H., & Crittenden, P.M. (1991). Physical and psychological maltreatment: Relations among types of maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 15, 5-18.
22.
Coohey, C. ( 2003). Defining and classifying supervisory neglect. Child Maltreatment, 8, 145-156.
23.
Crittenden, P.M., & Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1989). Child maltreatment and attachment theory. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 432-463). New York: Cambridge University Press.
24.
Cui, M., Donnellan, M.B., & Conger, R.D. ( 2007). Reciprocal influences between parents’ marital problems and adolescent internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1544-1552.
25.
Davis, J. ( 2002). Policy blueprint on domestic violence and poverty: Building comprehensive solutions to domestic violence (Publication No.15). Harrisburg, PA: National Resource Center on Domestic Violence.
26.
Diaz, J., Peddle, N., Reid, R., & Wang, C. ( 2002). Current trends in child abuse prevention and fatalities: The 2000 Fifty State Survey. Chicago: Prevent Child Abuse America.
27.
Douglas-Hall, A., & Chau, M. ( 2007). Basic facts about low-income children: Birth to age 18 . New York: National Center for Children in Poverty, Columbia University. Available from http://www.nccp.org
Dunifon, R., & Kowaleski-Jones, L. (2002). Who’s in the house? Differences in cohabitation, single parenthood, and child development. Child Development, 73, 1249-1264.
30.
Elliott, D.S. ( 1994). Serious violent offenders: Onset, developmental course, and termination: The American Society of Criminology 1993 presidential address . Criminology, 32, 1-21.
31.
Elliott, D.S., & Ageton, S.S. ( 1980, February). Reconciling race and class differences in self-reported and official estimates of delinquency. American Sociological Review, 45, 95-110.
English, D.J., Graham, J.C., Litrownik, A.J., Everson, M., & Bangdiwala, S.I. (2005b). Defining maltreatment chroncity: Are there differences in child outcomes? Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 575-595.
34.
English, D.J., Widom, C.S., & Branford, C. ( 2002). Childhood victimization and delinquency, adult criminality, and violent criminal behavior: A replication and extension. Final report presented to the National Institute of Justice (Grant No. 97-IJ-CX-0017).
35.
Erikson, E. ( 1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
36.
Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., Atkins, A., & Marcus, S. ( 1997). Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 116-122.
37.
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2007). Crimes in the United States 2006. Washington, DC: Author. Available from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr
38.
Garbarino, J. ( 1999). Lost boys: Why our sons turn violent and how we can save them. New York: Anchor .
39.
Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, N., & Pardo, C. ( 1992). Children in danger: Coping with the consequences of community violence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
40.
Gelles, R.J. ( 1992). Poverty and violence toward children. American Behavioral Scientist, 35, 258-274.
41.
Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ruffolo, M.C., Ortega, R.C., & Clarke, J. ( 2008). Behavior of youth involved in the child welfare system . Child Abuse & Neglect: The International Journal , 32, 35-49.
42.
Hamilton, C.E., Falshaw, L., & Browne, K.D. ( 2002). The link between recurrent maltreatment and offending behaviour. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 46, 75-94.
43.
Hawkins, J.D., Catalano, R.P., & Miller, J.Y. ( 1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64-105.
44.
Hawkins, J.D., Farrington, D.P., & Catalano, R.P. (1998). Reducing violence through the schools. In D. S. Elliott, B. A. Hamburg, & K. A. Williams (Eds.), Violence in American schools: A new perspective (pp. 188-216). New York: Cambridge University Press.
45.
Hay, C., Fortson, E.N., Hollist, D.R., Altheimer, I., & Schaible, L.M. (2007). Compound risk: The implications for delinquency of coming from a poor family that live in a poor community . Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 36, 593-605.
46.
Heide, K.M., & Solomon, E.P. ( 2004). Parental neglect in cases of kids who kill parents . Paper presented at the 2004 Annual Meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences, Las Vegas, NV .
47.
Herrenkohl, T.I., Hawkins, J.D., Ick-Chung, C., Hill, K.G., & Battin-Pearson, S. (2001). School and community risk factors and interventions. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Child delinquents: Development, intervention, and service needs (pp. 211-246). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
48.
Howing, P.T., Wodarski, J.S., Kurtz, P.D., Gaudin, J.M., & Herbst, E.M. ( 1990). Child abuse and delinquency: The empirical and theoretical links. Social Work, 35, 244-249.
49.
Jonson-Reid, M., & Barth, R.P. ( 2000). From maltreatment report to juvenile incarceration: The role of child welfare services. Child Abuse & Neglect , 24, 505-520.
50.
Katsiyannis, A., Ryan, J.B., Zhang, D., & Spann, A. ( 2008). Juvenile delinquency and recidivism: The impact of academic achievement. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 24, 177-196.
51.
Kline, R.B. ( 1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling . New York: Guildford .
52.
Korenman, S., Miller, J.E., & Sjaastad, J.E. (1995). Long-term poverty and child development in the United States: Results from the national longitudinal survey of youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 17, 127-151.
53.
Lemmon, J.H. ( 1997). The effect of child maltreatment on juvenile delinquency among a cohort of low-income urban males. Unpublished doctoral dissertation , University of Maryland, Baltimore .
54.
Lemmon, J.H. ( 1999). How child maltreatment affects dimensions of juvenile delinquency in a cohort of low-income urban males. Justice Quarterly, 16, 357-376.
55.
Lemmon, J.H. ( 2006). The effects of maltreatment recurrence and child welfare services on dimensions of delinquency. Criminal Justice Review , 31, 5-33.
56.
Litrownik, A.J., Lau, A., English, D.J., Briggs, E., Newton, R.R., Romney, S., et al. (2005). Measuring the severity of child maltreatment . Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 553-573.
57.
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D.P. (2001). The significance of child delinquency. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Child delinquents: Development, intervention, and service needs (pp. 1-22). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
58.
Loeber, R., Farrington, D.P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W.B. (1998). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Explanatory factors in childhood and adolescence. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
59.
Maguin, E., & Loeber, R. ( 1996). Academic performance and delinquency. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research (Vol. 20, pp. 145-264). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
60.
Manly, J.T., Kim, J.E., Rogosch, F.E., & Cicchetti, D. ( 2001). Dimensions of child maltreatment and children’s adjustment: Contributions of developmental timing and subtype. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 759-782.
61.
Mann, C.R. ( 1993). Unequal justice: A question of color. Bloomington: Indiana University Press .
62.
McCord, J. ( 1979). Some child-rearing antecedents of criminal behavior in adult men. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 8, 1477-1486.
63.
Moffitt, T.E. ( 1993). The neuropsychology of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 135-151.
64.
Moffitt, T.E. ( 1997). Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent offending: A complementary pair of developmental theories. In T. P. Thornberry (Ed.), Advances in criminological theories : Volume 7. Developmental theories of crime and delinquency (pp. 11-54). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publisher.
65.
Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., Silva, P.A., & Stanton, W. ( 1996). Childhood-onset versus adolescent-onset of antisocial conduct problems in males: Natural history from ages 3 to 18 years. Developmental Psychiatry, 8, 399-424.
Murray, J., & Farrington, D.P. (2005). Parental imprisonment: Effects on boys’ antisocial behaviour and delinquency through the life-course . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 1269-1278.
68.
Nelson, J.R., Stage, S., Duppong-Hurley, K.Synhorst, L., & Epstein, M.H. ( 2007). Risk factors predictive of the problem behavior of children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Exceptional Children, 73, 367-379.
69.
Offord, D.R., Lipman, E.L., & Duku, E.K. ( 2001). Epidemiology of problem behavior up to age 12 years. In R. Loeber & D. P. Farrington (Eds.), Child delinquents: Development, intervention, and service needs (pp. 95-116). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
70.
Patterson, G.R. ( 1980). Children who steal. In T. Hirschi & M. Gottfredson (Eds.), Understanding crime: Current theory and research (pp. 73-90). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
71.
Patterson, G.R., Capaldi, D.M., & Bank, L. ( 1991). An early starter model for predicting delinquency . In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 139-168). Hillside, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum.
72.
Patterson, G.R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1984). The correlation of family management practices and delinquency. Child Development, 55, 1299-1307.
73.
Pennsylvania Partnership for Children. (2003 ). The state of the child in Pennsylvania: A 2003 kids count fact book. Harrisburg, PA: Author .
74.
Phillips, S.D., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G.P., Costello, E.J., & Angold, A. ( 2006). Disentangling the risks: Parent criminal justice involvement and children’s exposure to family risks. Criminology and Public Policy, 5, 677-702.
75.
Ryan, J.P., & Testa, M.F. ( 2005). Child maltreatment and juvenile delinquency: Investigating the role of placement and placement instability. Children and Youth Services Review, 27, 227-249.
76.
Sampson, R.J., & Groves, W.B. ( 1989). Community structure and crime: Testing social disorganization theory. American Journal of Sociology, 94, 774-802.
77.
Schore, A. ( 2003). Affective dysregulation and disorders of self . New York: Norton.
78.
Sedlak, A.J., & Broadhurst, D.D. (1996). Third national incidence study of child abuse and neglect: Final report. Rockville, MD: Westat.
79.
Shaw, C.R., & McKay , H.D. (1942). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
80.
Smith, C., & Thornberry, T.P. (1995). The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent involvement in delinquency. Criminology, 33, 451-481.
81.
Smith, C., Ireland, T.O., & Thornberry, T.P. (2005). Adolescent maltreatment and its impact on young adult antisocial behavior. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 1099-1119.
82.
Snyder, H.N., & Sickmund, M. ( 2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 national report . Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice.
83.
Stewart, A., Livingston, M., & Dennison, S. ( 2008). Transitions and turning points: Examining the links between child maltreatment and juvenile offending. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 51-66.
84.
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Wei, E.H., Homish, D.L., & Loeber, R. ( 2002). Which family and demographic factors are related to both maltreatment and persistent serious juvenile delinquency? Children’s Services: Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 5, 261-272.
85.
Thornberry, T., Ireland, T.O., & Smith, C.A. ( 2001). The importance of timing: The varying impact of multiple problem outcomes. Development and Psychopathology , 13, 957-979.
86.
Tonry, M. ( 1995). Malign neglect: Race, crime, and punishment in America . New York: Oxford University Press .
87.
U.S. Health and Human Services, Administration on Children Youth, and Families. (2008). Child maltreatment 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
88.
Veysey, B.M., & Messner, S.F. ( 1999). Further testing of social disorganization theory: An elaboration of Sampson and Groves "Community Structure and Crime." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 36, 156-174.
89.
Vieno, A., Nation, M., Massimiliano, P., & Santinello, M. (2009). Parenting and anti-social behavior: A model of the relationship between adolescent self-disclosure, parental closeness, and adolescent antisocial behavior. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1509-1519.
90.
Walker, S., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. (2007). The color of justice: Race, ethnicity, and crime in America (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/ Wadsworth .
91.
Wasserman, G.A., Keenan, K., Tremblay, R.E., Coie, J.D., Herrenkohl, T.I., Loeber, R., et al. (2003). Risk and protective factors of child delinquency (Child Delinquency Bulletin Series). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
92.
West, D.J., & Farrington, D.P. (1977). The delinquent way of life: Third report of the Cambridge study in delinquent development. New York: Crane Russak.
Widom, C.S. ( 1989b). The cycle of violence. Science , 244, 160-166.
95.
Widom, C.S. ( 1989c). Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 3-28.
96.
Widom, C.S., & Ames, M.A. ( 1994). Criminal consequences of childhood sexual victimization . Child Abuse & Neglect, 18, 303-318.
97.
Zingraff, M.T., Leiter, J., Johnsen, M.C., & Myers, K.A. ( 1993). The mediating effect of good school performance on the maltreatment-delinquency relationship. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 62-91.
98.
Zuravin, S., DePanfilis, D., Burton, C., Gilles, S., & Majka, E. ( 1994). Stresses and strains of motherhood, Phase 2: DSS case record data abstraction instructions. Baltimore: University of Maryland School of Social Work.
