The purpose of this research was to determine whether police organizations while conducting race-based policing studies dependent on officer-generated forms are affected operationally or, because of the study’s findings, experience organizational change. Using a survey, the researchers asked departments about organizational changes resulting from race-based policing studies. In addition, the researchers compared the primary productivity measures of each department during the data collection periods with those of the corresponding period in the previous years to determine if the data collection process was reactive. The researchers found that police organizations have yet to experience substantial organizational change because of findings of racial or ethnic disparity in their routine enforcement activities. In addition, officer-generated information does not appear to be reactive.
Alpert, G. P., Smith, M. R., & Dunham, R. G. (2003, March). Toward a better benchmark: Assessing the utility of not-at-fault traffic crash data in racial profiling research. Paper presented at Confronting Racial Profiling in the 21st Century: Implications for Racial Justice Conference, Northeastern University, Institute on Race and Justice, Boston, MA.
2.
American Civil Liberties Union. (1999, July). Arrest the racism: Racial profiling in America. Retrieved July 12, 1999, from www.aclu.org/profiling/index.html
3.
American Civil Liberties Union. (2002, June). Arrest the racism: Racial profiling in America: Highlights in the campaign against racial profiling. Retrieved June 3, 2002, from www.aclu.org/profiling/highlight.html
4.
Brown, L. P. (1985, June). A future direction for police operations. Police Chief, 56, 21-24.
5.
Cordner, G., Williams, B., & Zuniga, M. (2001). Vehicle stop study: Mid-year report. San Diego, CA: San Diego Police Department.
6.
Cox, S. M., Pease, S. E., Miller, D. S., & Tyson, C. B. (2001). Interim report of traffic stops statistics for the state of Connecticut. Rocky Hill, CT: Division of Criminal Justice.
7.
Engel, R. S., Calnon, J. M., & Bernard, T. J. (2002). Theory and racial profiling: Shortcomings and the future directions in research. Justice Quarterly, 19(2), 249-273.
8.
Fridell, L., Lunney, R., Diamond, D., & Kubu, B. (2001). Racially biased policing: A principled response. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
9.
Greene, J. R. (1981). Organizational change in law enforcement. Journal of Criminal Justice, 9, 79-91.
10.
Harris, D. A. (1997). Driving while Black and all other traffic offenses: The Supreme Court and pretextual stops. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 87, 544-582.
11.
Harris, D. A. (1999, July). Driving while Black: Racial profiling on our nation’s highways. Retrieved July 12, 1999, from www.aclu.org/profiling/reoirt.index.html
12.
Harris, D. A. (2002). Profiles in injustice: Why racial profiling cannot work. New York: New Press.
13.
Jackson, H., & Withrow, B. L. (2000). Measuring race-based policing. National McNair Journal, 8(1), 39.
14.
Kirk, A., & Stamatiadis, N. (2001). Evaluation of the quasi-induced exposure: Final report. Lexington: University of Kentucky, Department of Civil Engineering.
15.
Knowles, J., Persico, N., & Todd, P. (1999). Racial bias in motor vehicle searches: Theory and practice. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
16.
Koornstra, M. J. (1973). A model for estimation of collective exposure and proneness from crash data. Crash Analysis and Prevention, 5, 157-173.
17.
Kruger, K. J. (2002, May). Collecting statistics in response to racial profiling allegations. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 71, 5.
18.
Lamberth, J. L. (1999a, July). Report from John Lamberth. Retrieved July 12, 1999, from www.aclu.org/court/lamberth.html
19.
Lamberth, J. L. (1999b, July). Revised statistical analysis of the incidence of police stops and arrests of Black drivers/travelers on New Jersey Turnpike between exits or Interchanges 1 and 3 from the years 1998 through 1991. Retrieved July 12, 1999, from www.aclu.org/profiling/index.html
20.
Langan, P. A., Greenfield, L. A., Smith, S. K., Durose, M. R., & Levine, D. J. (2001). Contacts between police and public: Findings from the 1989 national survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
21.
Lumb, R. C. (1995). Policing culturally diverse groups: Continuing professional development programs for police. Police Studies, 18(1), 23-41.
22.
Meehan, A. J., & Ponder, M. C. (2002). Race and place: The ecology of racial profiling African American motorists. Justice Quarterly, 19(3), 399-430.
23.
New York Attorney General’s Office. (1999). New York City Police Department’s “stop and frisk” practices. Albany, NY: Attorney General’s Office.
24.
Norris, C., Fielding, N., Kemp, C., & Fielding, J. (1992). Black and blue: An analysis of the influence of race on being stopped by the police. British Journal of Sociology, 43, 207-224.
25.
Oakland Police Department. (2000, May). A report from the chief of police on implementation of a program to collect data on traffic stops [a.k.a driving while Black or Brown (DWB)] in Oakland. Oakland, CA: Author.
26.
Oakland Police Department. (2001, May). An information report from the chief of police on traffic stop statistics. Oakland, CA: Author.
27.
Ramirez, D., McDevitt, J., & Farrell, A. (2000). A resource guide on racial profiling data collection systems: Promising practices and lessons learned. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
28.
Roberts, B. L. (1999, May). Race, ethnicity and the influence it has on stop and seizure. Retrieved May 3, 1999, from http://cs.sau.edu/broberts/stops.html
29.
Rudovsky, D. (2002, August). Breaking the pattern of racial profiling: When law enforcement officers make discretionary judgments based on race, can litigation put an end to stop-and-search violations?Trial, 38, 8.
30.
Sherman, L. W. (1974). The sociology and social reform of the American police 1950-1970. Journal of Police Science and Administration, l2(3), 255-262.
31.
Smith, M. R., & Petrocelli, M. (2001). Racial profiling? A multivariate analysis of police stop data. Police Quarterly, 4(1), 4-27.
32.
Stamatiadis, N., & Deacon, J. A. (1997). Quasi-induced exposure: Methodology and insight. Crash Analysis and Prevention, 29(1), 37-57.
33.
Territo, L. (1980). Planning and implementing organizational change. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 8(4), 390-398.
34.
Texas Department of Public Safety. (2000, December) Traffic stop data report. Retrieved December 12, 2000, from www.tdps.state.tx.us/direcot_staff/public-information/trafrep2q00.pdf
35.
Washington State Patrol. (2001). Report to the legislature on routine traffic stop data. Seattle, WA: State Patrol and Criminal Justice Training Commission.
36.
Withrow, B. L. (2002). The Wichita stop study. Wichita, KS: Wichita State University, Midwest Criminal Justice Institute.
37.
Withrow, B. L. (in press). Driving while different: A potential theoretical explanation for race-based policing. Criminal Justice Policy Review.
38.
Zingraff, M. T., Mason, H. M., Smith, W. R., Tomaskovic-Devey, D., Warren, P., McMurray, H. L., et al. (2000, November). Evaluating North Carolina State Highway Patrol data: Citations, warnings, and searches in 1998. Retrieved November 12, 2000, from www.nccrimecontrol.org/shp/ncshreport.html
