This paper provides an analysis of dress in Kalabari women's societies of Nigeria Dress is examined as a form of non-verbal communication symbolizing changing gender roles among Kalabari women. Dress in this context also acts as a visual form of social control related to status, gender, and ethnic identity. The development and proliferation of Kalabari women's societies from the late 1960s is shown to be linked to political and socioeconomic developments within Nigeria. As roles for many Kalabari women are moving in the direction of increased social and political achievement, so too, does their dress reflect this change. As women redefine their norms of dress with women's societies, they visually reinforce their ability to ascend politically and economically in Kalabari society.
Alagoa, E.J. (1970). Long distance trade and states in the Niger Delta . Journal of African History, 2(3), pp. 405-419.
6.
Alagoa, E.J. (1972). A history of the Niger Delta. Ibadan, Nigeria.
7.
Aronson, L. (1982, May). Popo weaving in Southeastern Nigeria. African Arts, 15, pp. 43-57, 90-91.
8.
Aronson, L. (1989). Akwete weaving: Tradition and change. In B. Englebrecht and B. Gardi, (Eds.), Man Does Not Go Naked: Textilien und Handwerk Aus Afrikanishen und Andren Landem, (Vol. 29), Basel, Switzerland: Basler Beitrage zur Ethnologie .
9.
Atkinson, J. (1982). Anthropology. Signs, 8, pp. 236-58.
10.
Bean, S. (1989) Ghandi and khadi, the fabric of Indian independence . In J. Schneider & A. Weiner, Cloth and Human Organization. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
11.
Berreman, G.D. (1968). Ethnography: Method and product. In J. A. Clifton (Ed.), Introduction to cultural anthropology: Essays in the scope and methods of the science of man. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
12.
Daly, M.C. (1984). Kalabari female appearance and the tradition of iria. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
13.
Daly, M.C., J.B. Eicher, & T.V. Erekosima . (1986, May). Male and female artistry in Kalabari dress. African Arts, 19(3), pp. 48-51,83
14.
Douglas, M. (1982). Natural Symbols. New York: Pantheon Books.
15.
Eicher, J. (1981). Influence of changing resources on clothing, textiles, and the quality of life: Dressing for reality, fun, and fantasy. ACPTC Proceedings, Central region.
16.
Eicher, J. (1982 August ). Analyzing dress of other cultures: The concept of cultural authentication. Textile Educators Assoc . of New South Wales, Australia.
17.
Eicher, J. (1983 October). Identity as symbolized by West African and imported textiles. New York: Wenner Gren Foundation.
18.
Eicher, J. (1988). A hierarchy of cloth: A Kalabari case study. Paper presented at International Federation of Home Economics .
19.
Eicher, J. (1992, October). World Fashion and its impact on ethnic and national dress. Paper presented to Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles, Seoul, Korea.
20.
Eicher, J. (forthcoming) Social change and dress among the Kalabari of Nigeria . Festschrift volume in honor of J. Allen Beegle. Michigan State University.
21.
Eicher, J. & T.V. Erekosima . (1980). Distinguishing non-Western dress from Western dress: The concept of cultural authentication. Association of College Professors of Textiles and Clothing, Washington, D.C.
22.
Eicher, J. & T.V. Erekosima . (April, 1983). The art and socioeconomic significance of Kalabari funerals. 6th Triennial Symposium ofAfrican Arts, Norman, Oklahoma.
23.
Eicher, J. & T.V. Erekosima . (1987, November). Kalabari funerals: Celebration and display. African Arts, 21 ( 1 ): pp. 38-45, 87.
24.
Eicher, J. & T.V. Erekosima . (1989a) "Kalabari funeral rooms as handicraft and ephemeral art in B. Englebrecht and B. Gardi, (Eds.), Man Does Not Go Naked: Textilien und Handwerk Aus Afrikanishen und Andren Landern, Volume 29. Basel, Switzerland: Basler Beitrage zur Ethnologie.
25.
Eicher, J. & T.V. Erekosima . (1989b, June). "Indian textiles in Kalabari funerals. 8th Triennial Symposium ofAfrican Arts , Washington D.C.
26.
Eicher, J. & T.V. Erekosima , & C. Liedholm. (1982). Cut and drawn: Textile work from Nigeria. Craft International, pp. 16-19.
27.
Eicher, J. & M.E. Roach-Higgins . (1992). Describing dress: A system for classifying and defining. In R. Bames & J. Eicher (Eds.), Dress and Gender: Making and Meaning. Oxford: Berg.
28.
Ellen, R. (1984). Ethnographic Research: A Guide to General Conduct . San Diego: Academic Press, Inc.
29.
Enabulele, A. (1985). The role of women's associations in Nigeria's development: Social welfare perspective. Women in Nigeria Today. Bath, England: Bath Press .
30.
Erekosima, T.V. (1979). The tartans of Buguma women: Cultural authentication . Los Angeles: Paper presented at African Studies Assoc.
31.
Erekosima, T.V. (1982). The use of apparel and accessories for expressing status in Nigerian societies: The Kalabari case studied as an education technology . Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Instructional Resources Centre, University of Port Harcourt.
32.
Erekosima, T.V. (1984). A hundred years of Buguma history in Kalabari culture. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Haig-Betanova, Assoc.
33.
Erekosima, T.V. (1989). Analysis of a learning resource for political integration applicable to Nigerian secondary school social studies: The case of Kalabari men's traditional dress. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C.
34.
Erekosima, T.V. & J.B. Eicher. (1981). Kalabari cut-thread and pulled-thread cloth. African Arts. 14(2), pp. 48-51,87
35.
Evenson, S.J. (1991) The manufacture of madras in South India and its export to Africa: A case study. Unpublished master's thesis. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
36.
Hamilton, J. & J.W. Hamilton . (1989) Dress as a reflection and sustainer of social reality: A cross-cultural perspective. Clothing andTextile Research Journal, 7(2), pp. 16-22.
37.
Horton, R. (1970). Kalabari culture and history. African Notes, 2, pp. 5-7.
38.
Horton, R. (1962). The Kalabari World-View. Africa , 32, pp. 197-220.
39.
Horton, R. (1965). Kalabari Sculpture. Apapa, Nigeria: Department of Antiquities, Federal Republic of Nigeria .
40.
Iyalla, B.S. (November, 1968). Womanhood in the Kalabari. Nigeria Magazine, 98, pp. 216-224.
41.
Jarmon, C. (1988). Nigeria: Reorganization and Development Since Mid-20th Century. New York: E. J. Brill Publishers.
42.
Jenewari, C.E. (October, 1973). Owu Aru Sun: Kalabari's most colourful ceremony. Oduma, 1 ( 1 ), pp. 27-31.
43.
Jones, G.I. (1965). Time and oral tradition with special reference to Eastern Nigeria. Journal of African History, 6, pp. 153-160.
44.
Jones, G.I. (1963). Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria. London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
45.
Leis, N. (1974). Women in groups: Ijaw women's associations. In Woman, Culture, and Society, (pp. 223-242). Stanford: University Press.
46.
Little, K. (1972). Voluntary associations and social mobility among West African women. Canadian Journal of African Studies, VI (ii), pp. 275-288.
47.
Little, K. (1965). West African Urbanization. Cambridge: University Press.
48.
Madume, V. (1976). Owu tradition: An embodiment of Kalabari mythology, ritualism and aesthetics. Unpublished B.A. thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
49.
March, K.S. & R.L. Taqqu. (1986). Women's Informal Associations in Developing Countries: Catalysts for Change?Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
50.
Michelman, S. (1992). Dress in Kalabari women's societies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
51.
Michelman, S. & T. Erekosima. (1992). Kalabari dress: Visual analysis and gender implications. In Barnes, R. and J. Eicher, Dress and Gender: Making and Meaning. Oxford: Berg.
52.
Michelman, S. (1990). Field notes.
53.
Michelman, S. (1987). Kalabari female and male aesthetics: A comparative visual analysis. Unpublished master's thesis. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
54.
Petgrave, M. (1992). Indian madras in Kalabari culture. Unpublished master's Plan B project. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
55.
Renne, E. (1985). Pelete Bite: Motifs and meaning. Unpublished master's thesis. University of Minnesota, St. Paul.
56.
Roach-Higgins, M. & J. Eicher. (1992). Dress and identity. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10(4): pp. 1-8.
57.
Talbot, P.A. (1967). Tribes of the Niger Delta: Their Religions and Customs. (original edition 1932). New York : Barnes and Noble, Inc.
58.
Tamuno, T.N. (1980). King Amachree I of Kalabari. Eminent Nigerians of the Rivers State. Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books, Ltd.
59.
Uwechue, R. (Ed.), (1991) Makers of Modern Africa: Profiles in History. 2nd edition. London: Africa Books Ltd.
