This study examines whether the level of exposure to mass media is related to self-esteem, body image, and eating disorder tendencies in a nonexperimental setting based on Festinger's social comparison theory. A convenience sample of 114 female college students participated in this study. Significant positive relationships between exposure to fashion or beauty magazines and (a) overall appearance dissatisfaction and (b) eating disorder tendencies were found. No relationship resulted from television exposure. In addition, risk of eating disorder tendencies was associated with (a) low self-esteem, (b) body dissatisfaction, and (c) overall appearance dissatisfaction.
Alfonso, V. C. (1995). Measures of quality of life, subjective well-being, and satisfaction with life. In D. B. Allison (Ed.), Handbook of assessment methods for eating behaviors and weight-related problems (pp. 23-80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
Birtchnell, S. A., Dolan, B. M., & Lacey, J. H. (1987). Body image distortion in non-eating disordered women. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 31, 513-520.
4.
Blowers, L. C., Loxton, N. J., Grady-Flesser, M., Occhipinti, S., & Dawe, S. (2003). The relationship between sociocultural pressure to be thin and body dissatisfaction in preadolescent girls. Eating Behaviors, 4, 229-244.
5.
Botta, R. A. (1999). Television images and adolescent girls' body image disturbance. Journal of Communication, 49(2), 22-41.
6.
Bray, G. (1986). Effects of obesity on health and happiness. In K. Brownell & J. Foreyt (Eds.), Handbook of eating disorders: Physiology, psychology, and treatment of obesity, anorexia, and bulimia (pp. 3-44). New York: Basic Books.
7.
Brenner, J. B., & Cunningham, J. G. (1992). Gender differences in eating attitudes, body concept, and selfesteem among models. Sex Roles, 27(7/8), 413-437.
8.
Brown, T. A., Cash, T. F., & Mikulka, P. J. (1990). Attitudinal body-image assessment: Factor analysis of the body-self relations questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(1/2), 135-144.
9.
Button, E. J., & Whitehouse, A. (1981). Subclinical anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 11, 509-516.
10.
Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. (1990). Body images: Development, deviance, and change. New York: Guilford.
11.
Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. (2002). Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice. New York: Guilford.
12.
Cash, T. F., & Szymanski, M. L. (1995). The development and validation of the body image ideals questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64(3), 466-477.
13.
Cash, T. F., Winstead, B. A., & Janda, L. H. (1986). Body image survey report: The great American shape-up. Psychology Today, 24, 30-37.
14.
Cooper, P. J., & Taylor, M. J. (1988). Body image disturbance in bulimia nervosa. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153(2), 32-36.
15.
Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of selfesteem. San Francisco: Freeman.
16.
Cusumano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (1997). Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: Exposure, awareness, and internalization. Sex Roles, 37(9/10), 701-721.
17.
Davis, L. L. (1985). Perceived somatotype, bodycathexis, and attitudes toward clothing among college females. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 61, 1199-1205.
18.
Demo, D. H. (1985). The measurement of self-esteem: Refining our methods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1490-1502.
19.
Fallon, A. (1990). Culture in the mirror: Sociocultural determinants of body image. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 80-109). New York: Guilford.
20.
Fallon, P., Katzman, M., & Wooley, S. (Eds.). (1994). Feminist perspectives on eating disorders. New York: Guilford.
21.
Feingold, A., & Mazzella, R. (1996). Gender differences in body image are increasing. Gender Psychologist, 32, 90-98.
22.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
23.
Fraze, J. L. (2000). Women's perspectives on the thin ideal in the development of eating disorders (Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(8), 3073A-3073A.
24.
Freedman, R. J. (1984, Summer/Fall). Reflections on beauty as it relates to health and adolescent females. Women and Health, 9, 29-45.
25.
Freedman, R. J. (1986). Beauty bound. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
26.
Freedman, R. J. (1988). Bodylove. New York: Harper & Row.
27.
Frost, J., & McKelvie, S. (2004). Self-esteem and body satisfaction in male and female elementary school, high school, and university students. Sex Roles, 51(1/2), 45-54.
28.
Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1979). The Eating Attitude Test: An index of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 9, 273-279.
29.
Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1980). Socio-cultural factors in the development of anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 10, 647-656.
30.
Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1981). Body image in anorexia nervosa: Measurement, theory, and clinical implications. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 11, 263-284.
31.
Garner, D. M., Garfinkel, P. E., Stancer, H. C., & Moldofsky, H. (1976). Body image disturbances in anorexia nervosa and obesity. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38, 227-237.
32.
Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1982). The Eating Attitude Test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 871-878.
33.
Garrow, J. S. (1986). Physiological aspects of obesity. In K. Brownell & J. Foreyt (Eds.), Handbook of eating disorders: Physiology, psychology, and treatment of obesity, anorexia, and bulimia (pp. 45-62). New York: Basic Books.
34.
Geller, J., Zaitsoff, S. L., & Srikameswaran, S. (2002). Beyond shape and weight: Exploring the relationship between nonbody determinants of self-esteem and eating disorder symptoms in adolescent females. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 32(3), 344-351.
35.
Goethals, G. R. (1986). Social comparison theory: Psychology from the lost and found. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12(3), 261-278.
36.
Gordon, L. (1984, February). Feeling fat in a thin society. Glamour, pp. 198-201, 251-252.
37.
Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(1), 1-16.
38.
Gross, J., & Rosen, J. C. (1988). Bulimia in adolescents: Prevalence and psychosocial correlates. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 7(1), 51-61.
39.
Grylli, V., Hafferl-Gattermayer, A., Wagner, G., Schober, E., & Karwautz, A. (2005). Eating disorders and eating problems among adolescents with type 1 diabetes: Exploring relationships with temperament and character. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 30(2), 197-206.
40.
Hargreaves, D., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). The effect of thin ideal television commercials on body dissatisfaction and schema activation during early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(5), 367-373.
41.
Harrison, K. (2000). Television viewing, fat stereotyping, body shape standards, and eating disorder symptomatology in grade school children. Communication Research, 27, 617-640.
42.
Harrison, K. (2001). Ourselves, our bodies: Thinideal media, self-discrepancies, and eating disorder symptomatology in adolescents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20(3), 289-323.
43.
Hausenblas, H. A., Janelle, C. M., Gardner, R. E., & Hagan, A. L. (2002). Effects of exposure to physique slides on the emotional responses of men and women. Sex Roles, 47(11/12), 569-575.
44.
Heinberg, L. J., & Thompson, J. K. (1992). The effects of figure size feedback (positive vs. negative) and target comparison group (particularistic vs. universalistic) on body image disturbance. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 12, 441-448.
45.
Heinberg, L. J., & Thompson, J. K. (1995). Body image and televised images of thinness and attractiveness: A controlled laboratory investigation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 17, 1-14.
46.
Henderson-King, E., & Henderson-King, D. (1997). Media effects on women's body esteem: Social and individual difference factors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 399-417.
47.
Hood, J., Moore, T. E., & Garner, D. M. (1982). Locus of control as a measure of ineffectiveness in anorexia nervosa. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 3-13.
48.
Jung, J., Lennon, S. J., & Rudd, N. A. (2001). Selfschema or self-discrepancy? Which best explains body image?Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 19(4), 171-184.
49.
Karwautz, A., & Treasure, J. (2000). Eating disorders. In P. Aggleton, J. Hurry, & I. Warwick (Eds.), Young people and mental health (pp.73-90). New York: John Wiley.
50.
Katzman, M. A., & Wolchik, S. A. (1984). Bulimia and binge eating in college women: A comparison of personality and behavioral characteristics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52(3), 423-428.
51.
Keel, P. K., Mitchell, J. E., Davis, T. L., & Crow, S. J. (2001). Relationship between depression and body dissatisfaction in women diagnosed with bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 30(1), 48-56.
52.
Kenrick, D. T., & Gutierres, S. E. (1980). Contrast effects and judgments of physical attractiveness: When beauty becomes a social problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 131-140.
53.
Kernaleguen, A., & Conrad, G. (1981). Analysis of five measures of self-concept. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51, 855-861.
54.
Kiemle, G., Slade, P. D., & Dewey, M. E. (1987). Factors associated with abnormal eating attitudes and behaviors: Screening individuals at risk of developing an eating disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6, 713-724.
55.
Klingenspor, B. (2002). Gender-related self-discrepancies and bulimic eating behavior. Sex Roles, 47(1/2), 51-64.
56.
Koslowsky, M., Scheinberg, Z., Bleich, A., Mark, M., Apter, A., Danon, Y., et al. (1992). The factor structure and criterion validity of the short form of the Eating Attitude Test. Journal of Personality Assessment, 58, 27-35.
57.
Lee, S. (1998). Body image, self-esteem, and compulsive shopping behavior among television shoppers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus.
58.
Lennon, S. J., & Rudd, N. A. (1994). Linkages between attitudes toward gender roles, body satisfaction, self-esteem, and appearance management behaviors in women. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 23, 94-117.
59.
Major, B., Testa, M., & Bylsma, W. H. (1991). Responses to upward and downward social comparisons: The impact of esteem-relevance and perceived control. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 237-260). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
60.
Mann, M., Hosman, C. M. H., Schaalma, H. P., & de Vries, N. K. (2004). Self-esteem in a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion. Health Education Research, 19(4), 357-372.
61.
Martin, M. C., & Kennedy, P. F. (1993, November/December). Advertising and social comparison: Consequences for female preadolescents and adolescents. Psychology & Marketing, 10(6), 513-530.
62.
McCauley, M. L., Mintz, L., & Glenn, A. A. (1988). Body-image, self-esteem, and depression-proneness: Closing the gender gap. Sex Roles, 18, 381-391.
63.
Mills, J. S., Polivy, J., Herman, C. P., & Tiggemann, M. (2002). Effects of exposure to thin media images: Evidence of self-enhancement among restrained eaters. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1687-1699.
64.
Mintz, L. B., & Betz, N. B. (1986). Sex differences in the nature, realism, and correlates of body image. Sex Roles, 15, 185-195.
65.
Mintz, L. B., & O'Halloran, M. S. (2000). The Eating Attitudes Test: Validation with DSM-IV eating disorder criteria. Journal of Personality Assessment, 74(3), 489-503.
66.
Nicklas, T. A., Baranowski, T., Cullen, K. W., & Berenson, G. (2001). Eating patterns, dietary quality and obesity. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 20(6), 599-608.
67.
Patton, G. C., Johnsone-Sabine, E., Wood, K., Mann, A. H., & Wakeling, A. (1990). Abnormal eating attitudes in London schoolgirls—A prospective epidemiological study: Outcome at twelve month follow-up. Psychology Medicine, 20, 383-394.
68.
Pollay, R. W. (1986, April). The distorted mirror: Reflections on the unintended consequences of advertising. Journal of Marketing, 50, 18-36.
69.
Potter, W. J. (1986, Spring). Perceived reality and the cultivation hypothesis. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 30, 159-174.
70.
Raciti, M. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1987). The EAT and EDI: Screening, interrelationships, and psychometrics. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6, 579-586.
71.
Richins, M. L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 71-83.
72.
Richins, M. L. (1995, February). Social comparisons, advertising, and consumer discontent. American Behavioral Scientist, 38(4), 593-607.
73.
Robinson, J. P., & Shaver, P. R. (1973). Measures of social psychological attitudes. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research. Survey Research Center.
74.
Rosen, J. C. (1990). Body image disturbances in eating disorders. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 190-214). New York: Guilford.
75.
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
76.
Rudd, N. A., & Lennon, S. J. (2001). Body image: Linking aesthetics and social psychology of appearance. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 19(3), 120-133.
77.
Silverstein, B., Perdue, L., Peterson, B., & Kelly, E. (1986). The role of the mass media in promoting a thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. Sex Roles, 14(9/10), 519-532.
78.
Stice, E., & Shaw, H. E. (1994). Adverse effects of the media portrayed thin-ideal on women and linkages to bulimic symptomatology. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 288-308.
79.
Stice, E., & Whitenton, K. (2002). Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls: A longitudinal investigation. Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 669-678.
80.
Thompson, A. M., & Chad, K. E. (2002). The relationship of social physique anxiety to risk for developing an eating disorder in young females. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31(2), 183-189.
81.
Thompson, J. K., & Heinberg, L. J. (1993). A preliminary test of two hypotheses of body image disturbance. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14, 59-64.
82.
Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Future directions: Integrative theories, multidimensional assessments, and multicomponent interventions. In J. K. Thompson & L. J. Heinberg (Eds.), Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance (pp. 311-332). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
83.
Thompson, J. K., Penner, L. A., & Altabe, M. N. (1990). Procedures, problems, and progress in the assessment of body images. In T. F. Cash & T. Pruzinsky (Eds.), Body images: Development, deviance, and change (pp. 21-48). New York: Guilford.
84.
Thompson, J. K., & Stice, E. (2001). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body image disturbance and eating pathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 181-183.
85.
Tiggemann, M., & McGill, B. (2004). The role of social comparison in the effect of magazine advertisements on women's mood and body dissatisfaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 23-44.
86.
Tiggemann, M., & Williamson, S. (2000). The effect of exercise on body satisfaction and self-esteem as a function of gender and age. Sex Roles, 43(1/2), 119-127.
87.
Toro, J., Cervera, M., & Perez, P. (1988). Body shape, publicity and anorexia nervosa. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 23, 132-136.
88.
Tucker, L. A. (1982). Relationship between perceived somatotype and body cathexis of college males. Psychological Reports, 50, 983-989.
89.
Tucker, L. A. (1983). The structure and dimensional satisfaction of the body cathexis construct of males: A factor analytic investigation. Journal of Movement Studies, 9, 189-194.
90.
Valois, R. F., Zullig, K. J., Huebner, E. S., & Drane, J. W. (2003). Dieting behaviors, weight perceptions, and life satisfaction among public high school adolescents. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment & Prevention, 11(4), 271-288.
91.
Wadden, T. A., Brownell, K. D., & Foster, G. D. (2002). Obesity: Responding to the global epidemic. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 70(3), 510-525.
92.
Women of the year. (2002). Ms.. Retrieved May 21, 2003, from http://www.msmagazine.com/dec02/womenoftheyear.asp
93.
Wood, J. V. (1989). Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 231-248.
