Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026
Technology-Facilitated Intimate Partner Violence Among U.S. Young Adults: Associations With Physical Intimate Partner Violence,Gender Identity,and Mental Health Outcomes
While smartphones are ubiquitous, especially among young people, their usage has created new avenues for abuse. Technology-facilitated intimate partner violence (TFIPV) can lead to several negative impacts on physical and mental health. Studies have found higher victimization rates among young people and mixed results based on gender identity. This study examines various forms of TFIPV victimization among U.S. young adults, focusing on its associations with physical intimate partner violence (IPV), gender identity, and mental health. Using data from the Year-22 survey of the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, our cross-sectional analysis included a sample of 1,053 young adults who were in a serious relationship, engaged, or married. Our findings highlight the link between TFIPV and physical IPV, as individuals who experienced physical IPV had almost 10 times the odds of experiencing TFIPV compared to those who had not experienced physical IPV. Young men reported TFIPV victimization rates at least two times greater than young women; however, worse mental health outcomes were found only among young women. Individuals with less education were more likely to experience TFIPV compared to individuals with college degrees, regardless of gender. Our results suggest the need to challenge the stereotype that men are less likely to be victims of TFIPV, a stereotype that discourages men from identifying as victims and seeking help. Prevention and intervention frameworks should move toward inclusive and gender-neutral approaches, while still acknowledging that the types of abuse may vary by gender. In addition, programming should highlight the different forms TFIPV can take and normalize open discussions about unhealthy digital relationship dynamics.
AfrouzR. (2023). The nature, patterns, and consequences of technology-facilitated domestic abuse: A scoping review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(2), 913–927. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211046752
2.
AfrouzR.VassosS. (2024). Adolescents’ experiences of cyber-dating abuse and the pattern of abuse through technology, a scoping review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25(4), 2814–2828. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380241227457
3.
Asher BlackDeerA.Patterson Silver WolfD. A.MaguinE.Beeler-StinnS. (2021). Depression and anxiety among college students: Understanding the impact of grade average and differences in gender and ethnicity. Journal of American College Health, 71(4), 1091–1102. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1920954
4.
BorrajoE.Gámez-GuadixM.CalveteE. (2015). Cyber dating abuse: Prevalence, context, and relationship with offline dating aggression. Psychological Reports, 116(2), 565–585. https://doi.org/10.2466/21.16.PR0.116k22w4
5.
BremM. J.RomeroG.GarnerA. R.GrigorianH.StuartG. L. (2021). Alcohol problems, jealousy, and cyber dating abuse perpetration among men and women: Toward a conceptual model. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(19–20), NP10205–NP10228. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519873333
6.
BremM. J.Tobar-SantamariaA.ShawT. J.MonganL. (2025). The proximal association between cyber and in-person IPV among college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 40(17–18), 4033–4058. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241284663
7.
BrownC.SanciL.HegartyK. (2021). Technology-facilitated abuse in relationships: Victimisation patterns and impact in young people. Computers in Human Behavior, 124, Article 106897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106897
8.
BurkeS. C.WallenM.Vail-SmithK.KnoxD. (2011). Using technology to control intimate partners: An exploratory study of college undergraduates. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1162–1167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.12.010
9.
Cano-GonzalezI.CharakR.GilbarO.Viñas-RacioneroR.StraitM. K. (2022). Witnessing parental violence and cyber IPV perpetration in Hispanic emerging adults: The mediating role of attitudes toward IPV. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(9–10), NP8115–NP8137. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520975834
10.
CaridadeS.BragaT.BorrajoE. (2019). Cyber dating abuse (CDA): Evidence from a systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 48, 152–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.08.018
11.
CavaM.-J.BuelgaS.CarrascosaL.Ortega-BarónJ. (2020). Relations among romantic myths, offline dating violence victimization and cyber dating violence victimization in adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), 1551. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051551
12.
ClossonK.BoyceS.C.JohnsN.Inwards-BrelandD. J.ThomasE. E.RajA. (2024). Physical, sexual, and intimate partner violence among transgender and gender-diverse individuals. JAMA Network Open, 7(6), Article e2419137. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.19137
13.
CutbushS.WilliamsJ.MillerS.GibbsD.Clinton-SherrodM. (2021). Longitudinal patterns of electronic teen dating violence among middle school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(5–6), NP2506–NP2526. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518758326
14.
DeansH.BhogalM. S. (2019). Perpetrating cyber dating abuse: A brief report on the role of aggression, romantic jealousy and gender. Current Psychology, 38(5), 1077–1082. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9715-4
15.
DuerksenK. N.WoodinE. M. (2021). Cyber dating abuse victimization: Links with psychosocial functioning. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(19–20), NP10077–NP10105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519872982
16.
EmezueC.ChaseJ.-A. D.UdmuangpiaT.BloomT. L. (2022). Technology-based and digital interventions for intimate partner violence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 18(3), Article e1271. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1271
17.
Exner-CortensD.EckenrodeJ.RothmanE. (2013). Longitudinal associations between teen dating violence victimization and adverse health outcomes. Pediatrics, 131(1), 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-1029
GilbarO.CharakR.TrujilloO.CantuJ. I.CavazosV.LaviI. (2023). Meta-analysis of cyber intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization: Different types and their associations with face-to-face IPV among men and women. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(3), 1948–1965. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221082087
20.
GirardS.HiggsT. (2024). Underreporting of men’s violence against female intimate partners. In ShackelfordT. K. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of domestic violence (pp. 1–14). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85493-5_1671-1
21.
Gracia-LeivaM.Puente-MartínezA.Ubillos-LandaS.González-CastroJ. L.Páez-RoviraD. (2020). Off- and online heterosexual dating violence, perceived attachment to parents and peers and suicide risk in young women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 3174. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093174
22.
HartmannM.StonerM.RamirezC. G.BrowneE. N.Jaime-AguilarA.RodriguezD.BhushanN. L.Shapley-QuinnM. K.Raymond-FleschM.MinnisA. (2025). Technology-facilitated abuse as a risk factor for STI and pregnancy in early adulthood: Evidence from Latine adolescents in California. Reproductive Health, 22, 166. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-025-02128-5
23.
HenryN.FlynnA.PowellA. (2020). Technology-facilitated domestic and sexual violence: A review. Violence Against Women, 26(15–16), 1828–1854. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219875821
24.
HenryN.PowellA. (2018). Technology-facilitated sexual violence: A literature review of empirical research. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(2), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016650189
25.
HindujaS.PatchinJ. W. (2021). Digital dating abuse among a national sample of U.S. youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(23–24), 11088–11108. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519897344
26.
KaurP.DhirA.TandonA.AlzeibyE. A.AbohassanA. A. (2021). A systematic literature review on cyberstalking. An analysis of past achievements and future promises. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 163, Article 120426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120426
27.
KesslerR. C.AndrewsG.MroczekD.UstunB.WittchenH.-U. (1998). The World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview short-form (CIDI-SF). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 7(4), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.47
28.
KimC.FerraressoR. (2023). Examining technology-facilitated intimate partner violence: A systematic review of journal articles. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(3), 1325–1343. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211061402
29.
LuY.Van OuytselJ.TempleJ. R. (2021). In-person and cyber dating abuse: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(12), 3713–3731. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075211065202
30.
LuY.Van OuytselJ.WalraveM.PonnetK.TempleJ. R. (2018). Cross-sectional and temporal associations between cyber dating abuse victimization and mental health and substance use outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 65, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.02.009
31.
McArthurJ.BlaisJ.TernesM. (2024). Digital dating abuse: An application of the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 39(5–6), 1308–1326. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605231205595
32.
McLeanC. P.AsnaaniA.LitzB. T.HofmannS. G. (2011). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: Prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(8), 1027–1035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.03.006
33.
MessingJ.Bagwell-GrayM.BrownM. L.KappasA.DurfeeA. (2020). Intersections of stalking and technology-based abuse: Emerging definitions, conceptualization, and measurement. Journal of Family Violence, 35(7), 693–704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00114-7
34.
MonteiroA. P.GuedesS.CorreiaE. (2023). Cyber dating abuse in higher education students: Self-esteem, sex, age and recreational time online. Social Sciences, 12(3), 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030139
35.
MumfordE.A.MaitraP.SheridanJ.RothmanE. F.OlsenE.RobertsE. (2023). Technology-facilitated abuse of young adults in the United States: A latent class analysis. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 17(3), Article 7. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2023-3-7
36.
Nolen-HoeksemaS. (2001). Gender differences in depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(5), 173–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00142
37.
O’ConnorJ.NepomnyaschyL. (2020). Intimate partner violence and material hardship among urban mothers. Violence Against Women, 26(9), 935–954. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219854539
38.
Ortega-BarónJ.MontielI.MachimbarrenaJ. M.Fernández-GonzálezL.CalveteE.González-CabreraJ. (2022). Epidemiology of cyber dating abuse victimization in adolescence and its relationship with health-related quality of life: A longitudinal study. Youth & Society, 54(5), 711–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X20980025
39.
PeitzmeierS. M.MalikM.KattariS. K.MarrowE.StephensonR.AgénorM.ReisnerS. L. (2020). Intimate partner violence in transgender populations: Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence and correlates. American Journal of Public Health, 110(9), e1–e14. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305774
ReedL. A.WardL. M.TolmanR. M.LippmanJ. R.SeabrookR. C. (2021). The association between stereotypical gender and dating beliefs and digital dating abuse perpetration in adolescent dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(9–10), NP5561–NP5585. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518801933
42.
ReichmanN. E.TeitlerJ. O.GarfinkelI.McLanahanS. S. (2001). Fragile families: Sample and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(4–5), 303–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-7409(01)00141-4
43.
ReyalH. P.DissanayakeN.GunarathnaH.SoysaD.FernandoM. S.SenarathnaL. (2024). Association between individual-level socioeconomic factors and intimate partner violence victimisation in women: A systematic review protocol. BMJ Open, 14, Article e080117. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-080117
44.
Rodríguez-deArribaM.-L.NocentiniA.MenesiniE.Sánchez-JiménezV. (2021). Dimensions and measures of cyber dating violence in adolescents: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 58, Article 101613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2021.101613
45.
RogersM. M.FisherC.AliP.AllmarkP.FontesL. (2023). Technology-facilitated abuse in intimate relationships: A scoping review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(4), 2210–2226. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221090218
46.
SchroederG. E.McMillanI. F.JulesB. N.Langhinrichsen-RohlingJ. (2024). Bad break-up behavior: Break-up characteristics, emotional dysregulation, and alcohol use as risk factors for cyber dating abuse among sexual orientation diverse college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 39(13–14), 3135–3157. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605231225522
SpencerC. M.StithS. M.CafferkyB. (2019). Risk markers for physical intimate partner violence victimization: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 44, 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.10.009
49.
SrivastavaA.RusowJ.SchragerS. M.StephensonR.GoldbachJ. T. (2023). Digital sexual violence and suicide risk in a national sample of sexual minority adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(3–4), 4443–4458. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221116317
50.
SugiuraL.ButtonM.NurseJ. R. C.TapleyJ.SaglamR. B.HawkinsC.FrederickB.BlackbournD. (2024). The technification of domestic abuse: Methods, tools, and criminal justice responses. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 26(1), 138–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/17488958241266760
51.
TacciniF.MannariniS. (2024). Unveiling the traumatic impact of cyber dating abuse and offline intimate partner violence: Exploring the mediating role of adult attachment. Scientific Reports, 14(1), Article 21222. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68759-z
52.
The Economist Intelligence Unit. (2021, March1). Measuring the prevalence of online violence against women. The Economist Intelligence Unit. https://onlineviolencewomen.eiu.com/
53.
Torp LøkkebergS.IhlebækC.BrottveitG.Del BussoL. (2024). Digital violence and abuse: A scoping review of adverse experiences within adolescent intimate partner relationships. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 25(3), 1954–1965. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231201816
Van OuytselJ.PonnetK.WalraveM.TempleJ. R. (2016). Adolescent cyber dating abuse victimization and its associations with substance use, and sexual behaviors. Public Health, 135, 147–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2016.02.011
56.
VilloraB.YuberoS.NavarroR. (2019). Cyber dating abuse and masculine gender norms in a sample of male adults. Future Internet, 11(4), 84. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi11040084
Von ElmE.AltmanD. G.EggerM.PocockS. J.GotzscheP. C.VandenbrouckeJ. P. (2007). The strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. Lancet, 370(9596), 1453–1457. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61602-X
ZweigJ. M.DankM.YahnerJ.LachmanP. (2013). The rate of cyber dating abuse among teens and how it relates to other forms of teen dating violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(7), 1063–1077. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9922-8
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
