This study investigated the relationships between adverse family conditions and the incidence of psychological abuse in childhood and examined how such abuse relates to emotional and social functioning in early adulthood. A survey of 1,769 students from the University of Economics in Katowice (Poland) assessed family risk factors (e.g., parental divorce, alcohol abuse, parental absence) and examined their association with childhood psychological abuse (ChPA) and subsequent psychosocial outcomes. Among participants, 223 individuals (12.6%) reported experiencing psychological abuse in childhood (ChPA group), while 1,536 (87.4%) did not (No Childhood Psychological Abuse group). Psychological abuse was associated with other forms of maltreatment, notably physical abuse (φ = .42) and, to a lesser degree, sexual abuse (φ = 0.09). Individuals exposed to psychological abuse more often reported emotional regulation difficulties, reduced capacity for joy, avoidance of emotional expression, and maladaptive coping (φ = .14–.24). They also faced greater interpersonal challenges, including heightened fear of conflict, uncertainty about social norms, and a tendency to adopt victim roles. The findings emphasize the cumulative risks within dysfunctional families and their associations with mental and social functioning. The study contributes to research on ChPA in Central and Eastern Europe and highlights potential implications for preventive and therapeutic initiatives targeting high-risk families.
AfifiT. O.BomanJ.FleisherW.SareenJ. (2009). The relationship between child abuse, parental divorce, and lifetime mental disorders and suicidality in a nationally representative adult sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(3), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.12.009
2.
AgrestiA. (2018). An introduction to categorical data analysis (3rd ed.). Wiley.
3.
BellisM.HughesK.GilbertR.MitisF.GaleaG.SethiD. (2013). European report on preventing child maltreatment. World Health Organization.
4.
BerzenskiS. R. (2019). Distinct emotion regulation skills explain psychopathology and problems in social relationships following childhood emotional abuse and neglect. Development and Psychopathology, 31(2), 483–496. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418000020
5.
BowlbyJ. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. 3. Loss, sadness, and depression. Basic Books.
6.
BowlbyJ. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.
7.
BriereJ.RickardsS. (2007). Self-awareness, affect regulation, and relatedness: Differential sequels of childhood versus adult victimization experiences. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(6), 497–503. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31803044e2
8.
BurnsE. E.JacksonJ. L.HardingH. G. (2010). Child maltreatment, emotion regulation, and posttraumatic stress: The impact of emotional abuse. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19(8), 801–819. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2010.522947
CecilC. A.VidingE.FearonP.GlaserD.McCroryE. J. (2017). Disentangling the mental health impact of childhood abuse and neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect, 63, 106–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.11.005
11.
CepuchG.LiberP.Kruszecka-KrówkaA. (2022). Child maltreatment – Sexual, physical, and emotional abuse and neglect as potential predictors of suicidal behaviour among adolescents – An acute problem in Poland. Medical Studies/Studia Medyczne, 38(1), 74–79. https://doi.org/10.5114/ms.2022.115150
12.
ColmanI.KingsburyM.GaradY.ZengY.NaickerK.PattenS. B.JonesP. B.WildT. C.ThompsonA. H. (2013). Consistency in adult reporting of adverse childhood experiences. Psychological Medicine, 46(3), 543–549. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715002032
13.
CookA.SpinazzolaJ.FordJ.LanktreeC.BlausteinM.CloitreM.DeRosaR.HubbardR.KaganR.LiautaudJ.MallahK.OlafsonE.van der KolkB. (2005). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 390–398. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-05
14.
CudakS. (2011). Przemoc psychiczna wobec dziecka jako forma dysfunkcji emocjonalnej w rodzinie [Psychological violence against the child as a form of emotional dysfunction in the family], Pedagogika Rodziny. Family Pedagogy, 1(2), 63–70.
15.
D’AndreaW.FordJ.StolbachB.SpinazzolaJ.van der KolkB. A. (2012). Understanding interpersonal trauma in children: Why we need a developmentally appropriate trauma diagnosis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82(2), 187–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01154.x
16.
DePrinceA. P.FreydJ. J. (2014). Trauma-related shame, dissociation, and trust in interpersonal relationships. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 15(1), 15–37.
17.
DubowitzH.ThompsonR.ProctorL.MetzgerR.BlackM. M.EnglishD.PooleG.MagderL. (2016).Adversity, maltreatment, and resilience in young children. Academic pediatrics, 16(3), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2015.12.005
18.
European Institute for Gender Equality [EIGE]. (2021). Combating violence against children in the EU. https://eige.europa.eu
19.
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights [FRA]. (2020). Violence against children in the EU: Survey and data. Publications Office of the European Union.
20.
EvansG. W.LiD.WhippleS. S. (2013). Cumulative risk and child development. Psychological Bulletin, 139(6), 1342–1396. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031808
21.
EvansS. E.DaviesC.DiLilloD. (2008). Exposure to domestic violence: A meta-analysis of child and adolescent outcomes. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13(2), 131–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2008.02.005
22.
FieldA. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
23.
FinkelhorD.OrmrodR. K.TurnerH. A. (2007). Poly-victimization: A neglected component in child victimization trauma. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.06.008
24.
FinkelhorD.TurnerH.ShattuckA.HambyS. (2015). Prevalence of childhood exposure to violence, crime, and abuse: Results from the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(8), 746–754. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0676
25.
FitzsimonsE.GoodmanA.KellyE.SmithJ. P. (2017). Poverty dynamics and parental mental health: Determinants of childhood mental health in the UK. Social science & medicine (1982), 175, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.12.040
26.
ForwardS.BuckC. (2011). Toksyczni rodzice [Toxic parents]. Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca.
27.
Fundacja Dajemy Dzieciom Siłę [FDDS]. (2018). Dzieci się liczą 2018. Raport o zagrożeniach bezpieczeństwa i rozwoju dzieci w Polsce [Children Matter 2018: A Raport on Safety Risks and Child Development in Poland].
28.
GibbB. E.ChelminskiI.ZimmermanM. (2007). Childhood emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, and diagnoses of depressive and anxiety disorders in adult psychiatric outpatients. Depression and Anxiety, 24(4), 256–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20238
29.
GilbertR.WidomC. S.BrowneK.FergussonD.WebbE.JansonS. (2009). Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. The Lancet, 373(9657), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61706-7
GrummittL. R.KreskiN. T.KimS. G.PlattJ.KeyesK. M.McLaughlinK. A. (2021). Association of childhood adversity with morbidity and mortality in US adults: A systematic review. JAMA Pediatrics, 175(12), 1269–1278. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2320
32.
GuralnickM. J. (2010). Early intervention approaches to enhance the peer-related social competence of young children with developmental delays: A historical perspective. Infants & Young Children, 23(2), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0b013e3181d22e14
33.
HeleniakC.JennessJ. L.StoepA. V.McCauleyE.McLaughlinK. A. (2016). Childhood maltreatment exposure and disruptions in emotion regulation: A transdiagnostic pathway to adolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40(3), 394–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-015-9735-z
34.
HibbardR.BarlowJ.MacmillanH., Child Abuse and Neglect and American Academy of Child And Adolescent Psychiatry & Child Maltreatment and Violence (2012). Psychological maltreatment. Pediatrics, 130(2), 372–378. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-1552
HughesK.BellisM. A.HardcastleK. A.SethiD.ButchartA.MiktonC.JonesL.DunneM. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 2(8), e356–e366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4
37.
KalschedD. (2015). Wewnętrzny świat traumy: Archetypowe obrony Jaźni. [The Inner World of Trauma: Archetypal Defenses of the Personal Spirit]. Zysk i S-ka.
38.
KelleherK.ChaffinM.HollenbergJ.FischerE. (1994). Alcohol and drug disorders among physically abusive and neglectful parents in a community-based sample. American Journal of Public Health, 84(10), 1586–1590. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.84.10.1586
39.
KożybskaM.GiezekM.ZabielskaP.MasnaB.CiechowiczJ.PaszkiewiczM.KotwasA.KarakiewiczB. (2022). Co-occurrence of adult abuse and child abuse: Analysis of the phenomenon. Journal of Injury & Violence Research, 14(1), 21–31. https://doi.org/10.5249/jivr.v14i1.1640
40.
LansfordJ. E.DodgeK. A.PettitG. S.BatesJ. E.CrozierJ.KaplowJ. (2014). A 12-year prospective study of the long-term effects of early child physical maltreatment on psychological, behavioral, and academic problems in adolescence. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(7), 622–629. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.1110
LopesA. I.LealJ.SaniA. I. (2021). Parental Mental Health Problems and the Risk of Child Maltreatment: The Potential Role of Psychotherapy. Societies, 11(3), 108. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc11030108
43.
López-MartínezA. E.Serrano-IbáñezE. R.Ruiz-PárragaG. T.Gómez-PérezL.Ramírez-MaestreC.EsteveR. (2016). Physical health consequences of interpersonal trauma: A systematic review of the role of psychological variables. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(3), 305–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016659488
44.
MakarukK.WłodarczykJ.SethiD.MichalskiT.SzredzińskaR.KarwowskaA. (2018). Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study Poland. The survey report. WHO Regional Office for Europe. https://www.who.int
45.
MathewsB.Collin-VézinaD. (2019). Child sexual abuse: Toward a conceptual model and definition. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 20(2), 131–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017738726
46.
McClureM. M.ParmenterM. (2017). Childhood trauma, trait anxiety, and anxious attachment as predictors of intimate partner violence in college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(23–24), 6067–6082. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517721894 (Original work published 2020)
McLaughlinK. A.WeissmanD.BitránD. (2019). Childhood adversity and neural development: A systematic review. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1, 277–312. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084950
49.
MehtaD.KellyA. B.LaurensK. R., et al. (2023). Child maltreatment and long-term physical and mental health outcomes: An exploration of biopsychosocial determinants and implications for prevention. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 54, 421–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-021-01258-8
50.
Messman-MooreT. L.LongP. J. (2003). The role of childhood sexual abuse sequelae in the sexual revictimization of women: An empirical review and theoretical reformulation. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(4), 537–571. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00203-9
51.
MiedzikM. (2014). Diagnoza zjawiska przemocy i możliwości uzyskania pomocy w sytuacji doświadczenia przemocy w percepcji dzieci i młodzieży: raport [Diagnosis of the phenomenon of violence and the possibility of getting help in the situation of experiencing violence in the perception of children and adolescents. Report]. Ministry of Labor and Social Policy.
52.
MiedzikM.Godlewska-SzurkowaJ. (2014). Badania porównawcze oraz diagnoza skali występowania przemocy w rodzinie wśród osób dorosłych i dzieci. Raport cząstkowy. [Comparative research and diagnosis of the scale of the occurrence of family violence among adults and children. Interim report]. Ministry of Labor and Social Policy.
53.
MikołajczukK. (2020). Different forms of violence – Selected issues. Review of European and Comparative Law, 43(4), 103–118. https://doi.org/10.31743/recl.10035
54.
Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights. (2002). Domestic violence in Poland. Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights.
55.
MitchellK. J.FinkelhorD.WolakJ.YbarraM. L.TurnerH. (2011). Youth internet victimization in a broader victimization context. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(2), 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.06.009
56.
MullerR. T.SicoliL. A.LemieuxK. E. (2010). Relationship between attachment style and posttraumatic stress symptomatology among adults who report the experience of childhood abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(2), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007752716195
57.
NormanR. E.ByambaaM.DeR.ButchartA.ScottJ.VosT. (2012). The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Medicine, 9(11), Article e1001349. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349
58.
PilarczykK.WłodarczykJ. (2019). Krzywdzenie emocjonalne w dzieciństwie a zachowania autodestrukcyjne. Wyniki badań polskich studentów. [Emotional abuse in childhood and self-destructive behaviors. Research results of polish students]. Dziecko Krzywdzone. Teoria, Badania, Praktyka, 18(1), 22–41.
59.
PolokG. (2015). Instytucjonalne formy wsparcia młodzieży akademickiej pochodzącej z rodzin dysfunkcyjnych [Institutional forms of supporting the young from dysfunctional families as carried out at the University of Economics in Katowice]. Wydawnictwo Kaga-Druk.
60.
RadfordL.CorralS.BradleyC.FisherH.BassettC.HowatN.CollishawS. (2012). Child abuse and neglect in the UK today. National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.
61.
RiggsS. A. (2010). Childhood emotional abuse and the attachment system across the life cycle: What theory and research tell us. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19(1), 5–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770903475968
62.
Sachs-EricssonN.VeronaE.JoinerT.PreacherK. J. (2006). Parental verbal abuse and the mediating role of self-criticism in adult internalizing disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 93(1–3), 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.02.014
63.
ShimS.KimD.KimE. (2024). Dissociation as a mediator of interpersonal trauma and depression: Adulthood versus childhood interpersonal traumas. BMC Psychiatry, 24, Article 764. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06095-2
64.
SieńskiM.ZiarkoM.ŁuczakK. (2018). Różnice płciowe w rozwoju wczesnych nieadaptacyjnych schematów. Badania prowadzone na grupie młodzieży doznającej przemocy w rodzinie [Gender differences in the development of early maladaptive schemas: A study conducted among adolescents experiencing family violence]. Dziecko Krzywdzone. Teoria, Badania, Praktyka, 17, 98–116.
65.
SpinazzolaJ.HodgdonH.LiangL. J.FordJ. D.LayneC. M.PynoosR.BriggsE. C.StolbachB.KisielC. (2014). Unseen wounds: The contribution of psychological maltreatment to child and adolescent mental health and risk outcomes. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(Suppl 1), S18–S28. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037766
66.
StoltenborghM.Bakermans-KranenburgM. J.van IJzendoornM. H. (2012). The neglect of child neglect: A meta-analytic review of the prevalence of neglect. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 48(3), 345–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-012-0549-y
67.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2019). Using multivariate statistics (7th ed.). Pearson.
68.
TaillieuT. L.BrownridgeD. A.SareenJ.AfifiT. O. (2016). Childhood emotional maltreatment and mental disorders: Results from a nationally representative adult sample from the United States. Child Abuse & Neglect, 59, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.07.005
69.
TrickettP. K.NollJ. G.PutnamF. W. (2011). The impact of sexual abuse on female development: Lessons from a multigenerational, longitudinal research study. Development and Psychopathology, 23(2), 453–476. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000174
70.
TurnerH. A.FinkelhorD.OrmrodR. (2010). Poly-victimization in a national sample of children and youth. American journal of preventive medicine, 38(3), 323–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2009.11.012
van HarmelenA. L.GibsonJ. L.St ClairM. C.OwensM.BrodbeckJ.DunnV.GoodyerI. M. (2014). Friendships and family support reduce subsequent depressive symptoms in at-risk adolescents. PLoS One, 11(1), Article e0115344. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115344
73.
WalkerL. E. (2019). The battered woman syndrome. Springer Publishing.
74.
WalshC.MacMillanH. L.JamiesonE. (2003). The relationship between parental substance abuse and child maltreatment: Findings from the Ontario Health Supplement. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(12), 1409–1425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.07.002
75.
WidomC. S.CzajaS. J.DuttonM. A. (2007). Childhood victimization and lifetime revictimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(8), 785–796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.12.006
76.
WojcikS. (2013). Przemoc w rodzinie, zaniedbanie, wiktymizacja pośrednia: wyniki Ogólnopolskiej diagnozy problemu przemocy wobec dzieci [Family violence, neglect, and indirect victimization. Results of the National diagnosis of the problem of violence against children]. Dziecko krzywdzone: Teoria, badania, praktyka. Child Abuse. Theory, Research, Practice, 12(3), 40–46.
77.
XiaoZ.BaldwinM. M.MeinckF.ObsuthI.MurrayA. L. (2021). The impact of childhood psychological maltreatment on mental health outcomes in adulthood: A protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews, 10, Article 224. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-021-01777-4
