Bullying Roles,Self-efficacy,and Social Support Through Social Identity Theory

Abstract

School bullying consists of a serious social and educational challenge, affecting numerous students. However, its repercussions are not uniformly distributed among participants. Numerous studies have underscored the variability in benefits and consequences, based on the roles individuals assume. The current study aimed to investigate the divergent levels of self-perception aspects (self-efficacy [SE], social support [SS]) among primary participants in various bullying roles (bullies, bully-victims, victims, and uninvolved). A total of 1,178 students from Greek primary and secondary schools (M = 12.98, SD = 1.49; 600 girls, 578 boys) participated, completing a questionnaire comprising demographic inquiries, the revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire, Bandura’s Children’s Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale, and the Short Form Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ6). Drawing upon social identity and social cognitive theories, the study examines the potential influence of specific bullying roles on self-perception distribution. The analyses of variance indicated significant differences in self-efficacy and SS among the different bullying roles. Multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed noteworthy calibration of social SE and SS among perpetrators of bullying. The findings highlighted that students who exhibit their superiority through moral behavior, rather than engaging in bullying, sustain healthier levels of SE and SS. Thus, fostering a supportive classroom environment and prioritizing moral goal attainment shows potential for producing beneficial outcomes.

Keywords

MANOVA bullying self-perception identity threat social appraisal

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Acharya

A. S.

Prakash

Saxena

Nigam

(2013). Sampling: Why and how of it. Indian Journal of Medical Specialties, 4(2), 330–333. https://doi.org/10.7713/ijms.2013.0032

Acoba

E. F.

(2024). Social support and mental health: the mediating role of perceived stress. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1330720. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1330720

Al-Jbouri

Volk

A. A.

(2021). Evolutionary perspectives on bullying. In Smith

P. K.

O’Higgins Norman

(Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of bullying: A comprehensive and international review of research and intervention (Vol. 2, pp. 745–763). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118482650.ch72

Allison

K. R.

Bussey

(2016). Cyber-bystanding in context: A review of the literature on witnesses’ responses to cyberbullying. Children and Youth Services Review, 65, 183–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.03.026

Artinopoulou

. (2025). The contribution of civil society in policies against bullying. In Artinopoulou

Smith

P. K.

Limber

Breivik

(Eds.), School bullying and the legacy of Dan Olweus (pp. 265–286). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394173556.ch15

Avery

E. E.

Hermsen

J. M.

Kuhl

D. C.

(2021). Toward a better understanding of perceptions of neighborhood social cohesion in rural and urban places. Social Indicators Research, 157(2), 523–541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02664-0

Baldry

A. C.

(2004). The impact of direct and indirect bullying on the mental and physical health of Italian youngsters. Aggressive Behavior, 30, 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20043

Bandura

(1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.

Bandura

Caprara

G. V.

Barbaranelli

Pastorelli

Regalia

(2001). Sociocognitive self-regulatory mechanisms governing transgressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(1), 125–135. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.125

10.

Brito

C. C.

Oliveira

M. T.

(2013). Bullying and self-esteem in adolescents from public schools. Jornal de Pediatria, 89(6), 601–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2013.04.001

11.

Brown

T. A.

(2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

12.

Boudon

(2003). Beyond rational choice theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 29(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100213

13.

Bourdieu

(1984). Espace social et genèse des “classes.” Actes de la Recherche en Sciences Sociales, 52(1), 3–14.

14.

Bussey

(2023). The contribution of social cognitive theory to school bullying research and practice. Theory Into Practice, 62(3), 293–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2023.2226549

15.

Chung

J. Y.

Lee

(2020). Are bully-victims homogeneous? Latent class analysis on school bullying. Children and Youth Services Review, 112, 104922 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104922

16.

Clark

Bussey

(2020). The role of self-efficacy in defending cyberbullying victims. Computers in Human Behavior, 109, 106340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106340

17.

Conners-Burrow

N. A.

Johnson

D. L.

Whiteside-Mansell

McKelvey

Gargus

R. A.

(2009). Adults matter: Protecting children from the negative impacts of bullying. Psychology in the Schools, 46(7), 593–604. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20400

18.

Connolly

(1989). Social self-efficacy in adolescence: relations with self-concept, social adjustment, and mental health. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 21(3), 258–269. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079809

19.

Cook

C. R.

Williams

K. R.

Guerra

N. G.

Kim

T. E.

Sadek

(2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020149

20.

Craig

W. M.

Harel-Fisch

Fogel-Grinvald

Dostaler

Hetland

Simons-Morton

Molcho

de Mato

M. G.

Overpeck

Due

Pickett

(2009). A cross-national profile of bullying and victimization among adolescents in 40 countries. International Journal of Public Health, 54(2), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-009-5413-9

21.

Craig

W. M.

Pepler

D. J.

(2007). Understanding bullying: From research to practice. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 48(2), 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/cp2007010

22.

Crenshaw

(1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039

23.

Crick

N. R.

Dodge

K. A.

(1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 74–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74

24.

Daskalou

Sygkollitou

(2024). Addressing violence and victimization in a school setting in Greece. Open Research Europe, 4, 189. https://doi.org/10.12688/openreseurope.18361.1

25.

Demaray

M. K.

Malecki

C. K.

(2003). Perceptions of the frequency and importance of social support by students classified as victims, bullies, and bully/victims in an urban middle school. School Psychology Review, 32(3), 471–489. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2003.12086213

26.

DePaolis

Williford

(2015). The nature and prevalence of cyber victimization among elementary school children. Child & Youth Care Forum, 44, 377–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-014-9292-8

27.

Ding

Xiao

Zhang

Wang

(2020). Profiles of adolescent traditional and cyber bullying and victimization: The role of demographic, individual, family, school, and peer factors. Computers in Human Behavior, 111, 106439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106439

28.

Douma

Travlos

A. K.

Stergioulas

(2012). Perceived self-efficacy scale and bullying. In Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Physical Education and Sport (pp. 24–27). Komotini, Greece. http://www.phyed.duth.gr/undergraduate/images/files/congress/2011/spaper/Sport_Psychology.pdf

29.

Erath

S. A.

Flanagan

K. S.

Bierman

K. L.

K. M.

(2010). Friendships moderate psychosocial maladjustment in socially anxious early adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2009.05.005

30.

Espelage

D. L.

Bosworth

Simon

T. R.

(2000). Examining the social context of bullying behaviors in early adolescence. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78(3), 326–333. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb01914.x

31.

Farrington

D. P.

(1993). Understanding and preventing bullying. Crime and Justice, 17, 381–458. https://doi.org/10.1086/449217

32.

Fluck

(2017). Why do students bully? An analysis of motives behind violence in schools. Youth & Society, 49(5), 567–587. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X1454787

33.

Franzen

van Duijn

M. A.

de Jong

P. J.

Veenstra

aan het Rot

(2024). How do victims of bullying develop depression? Testing interpersonal style to explain the victimization-depression link. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 34(4), 1391–1402. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.13005

34.

Fredstrom

B. K.

Adams

R. E.

Gilman

(2011). Electronic and school-based victimization: Unique contexts for adjustment difficulties during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 405–415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9569-7

35.

Gaffney

Farrington

D. P.

Ttofi

M. M.

(2019). Examining the effectiveness of school-bullying intervention programs globally: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 1, 14–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42380-019-0007-4

36.

Georgiou

S. N.

Stavrinides

(2012). Social-psychological profiles of early adolescents involved in bullying activities. International Journal of Criminology and Sociology, 1, 60–68.

37.

Hogg

M. A.

(2016). Social identity theory. In McKeown

Haji

Ferguson

(Eds.), Understanding peace and conflict through social identity theory (pp. 3–17). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29869-6_1

38.

Holt

M. K.

Espelage

D. L.

(2007). Perceived social support among bullies, victims, and bully-victims. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 984–994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9153-3

39.

Hong

J. S.

Espelage

D. L.

(2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school: An ecological system analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.03.003

40.

Hong

J. S.

Espelage

D. L.

Hunter

S. C.

Allen-Meares

(2018). Integrating multi-disciplinary social science theories and perspectives to understand school bullying and victimisation. In Ireland

Birch

Ireland

(Eds.), The Routledge international handbook of human aggression: Current issues and perspectives (pp. 109–120). Routledge.

41.

Huberty

C. J.

Olejnik

(2006). Applied MANOVA and discriminant analysis. John Wiley & Sons.

42.

Huitsing

Veenstra

(2012). Bullying in classrooms: Participant roles from a social network perspective. Aggressive Behavior, 38(6), 494–509. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21438

43.

Jansen

P. W.

Verlinden

Dommisse-van Berkel

Mieloo

C. L.

Raat

Hofman

Jaddoe

V. W. V.

Verhulst

F. C.

Jansen

Tiemeier

(2014). Teacher and peer reports of overweight and bullying among young primary school children. Pediatrics, 134(3), 473–480. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3274

44.

Kafetsios

Sideridis

G. D.

(2006). Attachment, social support and well-being in young and older adults. Journal of Health Psychology, 11(6), 863–875. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105306069084

45.

Kennedy

R. S.

(2021). Bully-victims: An analysis of subtypes and risk characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(11–12), 5401–5421. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517741213

46.

Kokkinos

C. M.

Kipritsi

(2012). The relationship between bullying, victimization, trait emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and empathy among preadolescents. Social Psychology of Education, 15, 41–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-011-9168-9

47.

Kokkinos

C. M.

Saripanidis

(2017). A lifestyle exposure perspective of victimization through Facebook among university students. Do individual differences matter?. Computers in Human Behavior, 74, 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.036

48.

Kokkinos

C. M.

Voulgaridou

(2024). Profiles of relational aggression among adolescents: Associations with parenting, empathy, and moral disengagement. In Bosacki

C. K.

(Ed.), The social and emotional development of children and adolescents: A cultural perspective (pp. 243–263). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035301362.00014

49.

Kusumaningsih

Febriani

(2022). The role of social skills on bullying behavior tendency with friendship quality as mediator. Jurnal Psikologi, 49(2), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.22146/jpsi.69779

50.

Kyriakides

Kaloyirou

Lindsay

(2006). An analysis of the revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire using the Rasch measurement model. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 781–801. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709905X53499

51.

Kwak

Clayton-Matthews

(2002). Multinomial logistic regression. Nursing Research, 51(6), 404–410.

52.

Liu

Wang

(2023). School bullying and self-efficacy in adolescence: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 95(8), 1541–1552. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12245

53.

Llorca

Cristina Richaud

Malonda

(2017). Parenting, peer relationships, academic self-efficacy, and academic achievement: Direct and mediating effects. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2120. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02120

54.

Luo

Zheng

Xiao

Xie

Liu

Zhu

Xiang

Song

(2022). Relationship between school bullying and mental health status of adolescent students in China: A nationwide cross-sectional study. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 70, 103043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2022.103043

55.

Monks

C. P.

Smith

P. K.

Naylor

Barter

Ireland

J. L.

Coyne

(2009). Bullying in different contexts: Commonalities, differences and the role of theory. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(2), 146–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.004

56.

Moore

S. E.

Norman

R. E.

Suetani

Thomas

H. J.

Sly

P. D.

Scott

J. G.

(2017). Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Psychiatry, 7(1), 60–76. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v7.i1.60

57.

Moreno

A. G.

Jurado

M. D. M. M

. (2024). Intervention programs for the prevention of bullying and the promotion of prosocial behaviors in adolescence: A systematic review. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 10, 100954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.100954

58.

Nansel

T. R.

Overpeck

Pilla

R. S.

Ruan

W. J.

Simons-Morton

Scheidt

(2001). Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. Jama, 285(16), 2094–2100. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.16.2094

59.

Newsom

J. T.

(2023). Longitudinal structural equation modeling: A comprehensive introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge.

60.

Olweus

(1991). Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: Basic facts and effects of a school-based intervention program. In Pepler

Rubin

(Eds.), Development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 409–445). Erlbaum. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771693

61.

Olweus

(1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Blackwell.

62.

Olweus

(1996). The Revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire for students. University of Bergen. https://doi.org/10.1037/t09634-000

63.

Omair

(2025). Sample size estimation and sampling techniques for selecting a representative sample. Journal of Health Specialties, 2(4), 142. https://doi.org/10.4103/1658-600X.142783

64.

Ozada Nazim

Duyan

. (2021). Bullying problem among high school students: The impact of school life. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 9(2), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2019.1699215

65.

Pastorelli

Caprara

G. V.

Barbaranelli

Rola

Rozsa

Bandura

(2001). The structure of children’s perceived self-efficacy: A cross-national study. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17(2), 87–97. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.17.2.87

66.

Riffle

L. N.

Kelly

K. M.

Demaray

M. L.

Malecki

C. E.

Santuzzi

A. M.

Rodriguez-Harris

D. J.

Emmons

J. D.

(2021). Associations among bullying role behaviors and academic performance over the course of an academic year for boys and girls. Journal of School Psychology, 86, 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2021.03.002

67.

Salmivalli

Kärnä

Poskiparta

(2010). Bullying and the peer group: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(2), 112–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.08.007

68.

Salmivalli

Lagerspetz

Björkqvist

Österman

Kaukiainen

(1996). Bullying as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status within the group. Aggressive Behavior, 22(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1996)22:1<1::AID-AB1>3.0.CO;2-T

69.

Salmivalli

Nieminen

(2002). Proactive and reactive aggression among school bullies, victims, and bully-victims. Aggressive Behavior, 28(1), 30–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.90004

70.

Sanders

J. B. P.

Malamut

Cillessen

A. H. N.

(2021). Why do bullies bully? Motives for bullying. In Smith

P. K.

O’Higgins Norman

(Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of bullying: A comprehensive and international review of research and intervention (Vol. 1, pp. 158–176). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118482650.ch9

71.

Sarason

I. G.

Sarason

B. R.

Shearin

E. N.

Pierce

G. R.

(1987). A brief measure of social support: Practical and theoretical implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4(4), 497–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407587044007

72.

Saripanidis

Travlos

A. K.

Antonopoulou

Strigas

Ourda

(2025). Exploring moderators of the relationship between self-efficacy and bullying involvement: A Social Cognitive Theory perspective. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publicaion. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605251324965

73.

Schoeler

Duncan

Cecil

C. M.

Ploubidis

G. B.

Pingault

J. B.

(2018). Quasi-experimental evidence on short-and long-term consequences of bullying victimization: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 144(12), 1229–1246. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000171

74.

Schwartz

(2000). Subtypes of victims and aggressors in children’s peer groups. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(2), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005174831561

75.

Seon

Smith-Adcock

(2021). School belonging, self-efficacy, and meaning in life as mediators of bullying victimization and subjective well-being in adolescents. Psychology in the Schools, 58(9), 1753–1767. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22534

76.

Seong

Lim

Jang

G. E.

Park

Kang

Lee

S. M.

(2024). Relationship between interpersonal emotion regulation and social support and their effects on depressive symptoms in Korean emerging adults. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 48(4), 661–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-024-10470-4

77.

Solberg

M. E.

Olweus

(2003). Prevalence estimation of school bullying with the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire. Aggressive Behavior, 29(3), 239–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10047

78.

Sørensen

J. F.

(2016). Rural–urban differences in bonding and bridging social capital. Regional Studies, 50(3), 391–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2014.918945

79.

Stuart

E. Jose

. (2014). Is bullying bad for your health? The consequences of bullying perpetration and victimization in childhood on health behaviors in adulthood. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 6(3), 185–195. https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-01-2014-0003

80.

Tabachnick

B. G.

Fidell

L. S.

(2025). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). In Lovric

(Ed.), International encyclopedia of statistical science (pp. 1616–1619). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-69359-9_398

81.

Tajfel

Turner

J. C.

(1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin

W. G.

Worchel

(Eds.), The social psychology of inter-group relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.

82.

Travlos

A. K.

Tsorbatzoudis

Barkoukis

Douma

(2021). The effect of moral disengagement on bullying: Testing the moderating role of personal and social factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(5–6), 2262–2281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518760012

83.

Ttofi

M. M.

Farrington

D. P.

Lösel

Loeber

(2011). Do the victims of school bullies tend to become depressed later in life? A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 3(2), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1108/17596591111132873

84.

United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Treaty Series, 1577, 3, 1–23.

85.

Van der Ploeg

Steglich

Veenstra

. (2020). The way bullying works: How new ties facilitate the mutual reinforcement of status and bullying in elementary schools. Social Networks,60, 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2018.12.006

86.

Volk

Stengel

Schultmann

(2014). Building Information Modeling (BIM) for existing buildings—Literature review and future needs. Automation in Construction, 38, 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2013.10.023

87.

Wachs

Bilz

Fischer

S. M.

Schubarth

Wright

M. F.

(2018). Students’ willingness to intervene in bullying: Direct and indirect associations with classroom cohesion and self-efficacy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(11), 2577. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112577

88.

Walters

G. D.

Espelage

D. L.

(2018). From victim to victimizer: Hostility, anger, and depression as mediators of the bullying victimization–bullying perpetration association. Journal of School Psychology, 68, 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.12.003