Consent is a purposive agreement to engage mutually in specific actions, given freely and without coercion. In the context of sexual interactions, active consent refers to an unambiguous and freely given agreement to participate, absent of any coercion by either party. Conversely, rape myths, stemming from rape culture, are false beliefs and misconceptions about sexual assault that typically frame women as victims and men as perpetrators.. The current study assessed how rape myth disavowal connects to positive perceptions of active consent and how acceptance of active consent practices is mediated by personal context (i.e., gender, personality, and sexual victimization experience) and ideologies (i.e., adherence to socialized sex roles, feminism, and liberalism). The current study utilized a purposive sample of university students (n = 667) from six universities in the United States. Hypotheses were tested using a series of ordinary least squares regression models. Rape Myth disavowal was found to be a significant predictor of active consent controlling for several ideological and personal context variables. Sexual victimization experience was not found to be a significant predictor of active consent.
AcquavivaB. L.O’NealE. N.ClevengerS. L. (2021). Sexual assault awareness in the #metoo era: Student perceptions of victim believability and cases in the media. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 46, 6–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09585-7
2.
AhmedM. M.ChungK. Y.EicheseherJ. W. (2003). Business students’ perception of ethics and moral judgment: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Business Ethics, 43, 89–102. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022915316112
3.
AndersonL.A.WhistonS. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 374–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00237.x
4.
AngeloneD. J.CantorN.MarcantonioT.JoppaM. (2021). Does sexism mediate the gender and rape myth acceptance relationship?Violence Against Women, 27, 748–765. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220913632
5.
AroustamianC. (2020). Time’s up: Recognizing sexual violence as a public policy issue: A qualitative content analysis of sexual violence cases and the media. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 50, 101341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.101341
6.
BeresM. A. (2007). ‘Spontaneous’ sexual consent: An analysis of sexual consent literature. Feminism & Psychology, 17(1), 93–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353507072914
7.
BrownmillerS. (1975). Against our will: Men, women, and rape. Ballantine.
ColemanP. (2017). The political is personal: A critique of what popular culture teaches about consent (and how to fix it). In StrykerK. (Ed.), Ask: Building consent culture (pp. 25–34). Thorntree Press.
10.
ConnellN.WilsonC. (1974). Rape: The first sourcebook for women by New York radical feminists. The New American Library.
DasI.BhattacharjeeA. (2021). FActor structure of the updated Illiniois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in the Indian context. Psychological Thought, 14, 56–73. https://doi.org/10.37708/psyct.v14i1.546
DunnH. K.OrchowskiL. M. (2022). Gender equitable attitudes, rape myth acceptance, and perceived peer approval of violence as correlates of high school boys’ intention to garner sexual consent. Journal of interpersonal violence, 37, NP19688–NP19705. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211042623
15.
EdwardsK. M.TurchikJ. A.DardisC.ReynoldsN.GidyczC. A. (2011). Rape myths: History, individual and institutional level presence, and implications for change. Sex Roles, 65, 761–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9943-2
FisherB. S.DaigleL. E.CullenF. T. (2009). Unsafe in the ivory tower: The sexual victimization of college women. Sage.
18.
FlintortR. (2010). Sexual assault. In NicolettiJ.Spencer-ThomasS.BollingerC. (Eds.), Violence goes to college: The authoritative guide to prevention and intervention (2nd ed.). Charles C Thomas.
19.
FloxAV. (2017). The legal framework of consent is worthless. In StrykerK. (Ed.), Ask: Building consent culture (pp. 15–24). Thorntree Press.
20.
FordC. (2019). Boys will be boys: Power, patriarchy and toxic masculinity. Simon and Schuster.
21.
FreitasD. (2018). Consent on campus: A manifesto. Oxford University Press.
22.
FreundK.WatsonR. (1990). Mapping the boundaries of courtship disorder. The Journal of Sex Research, 27, 589–606.
23.
GrigoriadisV. (2017). Blurred lines: Rethinking sex, power, and consent on campus. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
24.
GrijalvaE.NewmanD. A.TayL.DonnellanM. B.HarmsP. D.RobinsR. W.YanT. (2015). Gender differences in narcissism: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin141, 261–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038231
25.
GulP.SchusterI. (2020). Judgments of marital rape as a function of honor culture, masculine reputation threat, and observer gender: A cross-cultural comparison between Turkey, Germany, and the UK. Aggressive Behavior, 46, 341–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21893
26.
HammondE. M.BerryM. A.RodriguezD. N. (2011). The influence of rape myth acceptance, sexual attitudes, and belief in a just world on attributions of responsibility in a date rape scenario. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 16, 242–252. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532510X499887
27.
HermannC.LiangC. T.DeSipioB. E. (2018). Exploring sexual consent and hostile masculine norms using the theory of planned behavior. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19, 491–499. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000127
28.
HockettJ. M.SmithS. J.KlausingC. D.SaucierD. A. (2016). Rape myth consistency and gender differences in perceiving rape victims: A meta-analysis. Violence Against Women, 22, 139–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215607359
29.
HodgesS. D.LaurentS. M.LewisK. L. (2011). Specially motivated, feminine, or just female: Do women have an empathic accuracy advantage. In SmithJ. L.IckesW.HallJ. A.HodgesS.D. (Eds.), Managing interpersonal sensitivity: Knowing when and when not to understand others (pp. 59–74).
30.
HuckJ. L. (2021). Campus rape culture: Identity and myths. Routledge.
31.
HumphreysT. P.BrousseauM. M. (2010). The sexual consent scale–revised: development, reliability, and preliminary validity. Journal of Sex Research, 47, 420–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903151358
32.
ImS.JinG.JeongJ.YeomJ.JekalJ.LeeS. I.ChoJ. A.LeeS.LeeY.KimD. H.BaeM.HeoJ.MoonC.LeeC. H. (2018). Gender differences in aggression-related responses on EEG and ECG. Experimental Neurobiology, 27(6), 526–538. https://doi.org/10.5607/en.2018.27.6.526
33.
JeffreyN. K.SennC. Y. (2025). Gender differences in sexual violence perpetration behaviors and validity of perpetration reports: A mixed-method study. The Journal of Sex Research, 62, 208–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2024.2322591
34.
JohnsonN. L.JohnsonD. M. (2021). An empirical exploration into the measurement of rape culture. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36, NP70-NP95. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517732347
35.
JohnsonN. L.LippN. S.StoneH. K. (2021). Initial evaluation of a gender-inclusive version of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 10, 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000536
36.
JozkowskiK. N.PetersonZ.-D. (2013). College students and sexual consent: Unique insights. The Journal of Sex Research, 50, 517–523. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.700739
37.
JozkowskiK. N.PetersonZ. D.SandersS. A.DennisB.ReeceM. (2014). Gender differences in heterosexual college students’ conceptualizations and indicators of sexual consent: Implications for contemporary sexual assault prevention education. Journal of Sex Research, 51, 904–916. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.792326
KatzJ. (2006). Macho Paradox: Why some men hurt women and how all men can help. Sourcebooks, Inc.
40.
KesselA. (2022). Rethinking rape culture: Revelations of intersectional analysis. American Political Science Review, 116, 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000733
41.
KeyserA. J. (2019). No more excuses: Dismantling rape culture. Twenty-First Century Books.
42.
KilimnikC. D.HumphreysT. P. (2018). Understanding sexual consent and nonconsensual sexual experiences in undergraduate women: The role of identification and rape myth acceptance. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 27, 195–206. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2017-0028
43.
KimmelM.FerberA. L. (2000). “White men are this nation:” Right-wing militias and the restoration of rural American masculinity. Rural Sociology, 65, 582–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2000.tb00045.x
44.
KlementK. R.SagarinB. J.LeeE. M. (2017). Participating in a culture of consent may be associated with lower rape-supportive beliefs. The Journal of Sex Research, 54, 1030–1034. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1168353
45.
LevandM. A. (2020). Consent as cross-cultural communication: Navigating consent in a multicultural world. Sexuality & Culture, 24, 835–847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-019-09667-7
46.
LucasJ. W. (2003). Theory-testing, generalizations, and the problem of external validity. Sociological Theory, 21, 236–253.
47.
ŁyśA. E.Bargiel-MatusiewiczK.KrasuskiT.StudzińskaA. (2023). Psychometric properties of the polish updated Illinois rape myth acceptance scale. Current Psychology, 42, 445–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01249-3
48.
Malonda-VidalE.Samper-GarcíaP.Llorca-MestreA.Muñoz-NavarroR.Mestre-EscriváV. (2021). Traditional masculinity and aggression in adolescence: Its relationship with emotional processes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 9802–9814. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189802
49.
Martin-StoreyA.PaquetteG.BergeronM.Castonguay-KhounsombathS.PrévostÈ. (2024). How sexual and gender minority students discuss sexuality and gender in describing their experiences of sexual violence. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 11, 113. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000577
50.
McGuireL. (2021). Creating cultures of consent: A guide for parents and educators. Roman and Littlefield.
51.
McKennaJ. L.RoemerL.OrsilloS. M. (2021). Predictors of sexual consent attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors among sexual minority cisgender and nonbinary young adults. Sex Roles, 85, 391–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-021-01226-5
52.
McMahonS.FarmerG. L. (2011). An updated measure for assessing subtle rape myths. Social Work Research, 35, 71-81.
53.
MetzJ.MyersK.WallaceP. (2021). ‘Rape is a man’s issue:’ Gender and power in the era of affirmative sexual consent. Journal of Gender Studies, 30, 52–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2020.1834367
54.
MillerA. K. (2019). “Should have known better than to fraternize with a Black man”: Structural racism intersects rape culture to intensify attributions of acquaintance rape victim culpability. Sex Roles, 81, 428–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-1003-3
55.
MurphyP. F. (Ed.). (2004). Feminism & Masculinities. Oxford University Press.
56.
Murray-CloseD.OstrovJ. M.NelsonD. A.CrickN. R.CoccaroE. F. (2010). Proactive, reactive, and romantic relational aggression in adulthood: Measurement, predictive validity, gender differences, and association with intermittent explosive disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44, 393–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.09.005
57.
NichollsT. (2021). Dismantling rape culture: The peacebuilding power of ‘Me Too’ (p. 221). Taylor & Francis.
58.
NotteJ. (2017). Sex and love when you hate yourself and don’t have your shit together. In StrykerK. (Ed.), Ask: Building consent culture (pp. 9–14). Thorntree Press.
59.
NyúlB.KendeA. (2021). Rape myth acceptance as a relevant psychological construct in a gender-unequal context: The Hungarian adaptation of the updated Illinois rape myths acceptance scale. Current Psychology, 42, 3098–3111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01631-9
60.
O’BryneR.HansenS.RapleyM. (2008). “If a girl doesn’t say no . . .”: Young men, rape, and claims of “insufficient knowledge.”Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 18, 168–193. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.922
61.
O’BryneR.RapleyM.HansenS. (2006). “You couldn’t say ‘no,’ could you?”: Young men’s understanding of sexual refusal. Feminism and Psychology, 16, 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959-353506062970
62.
PalmerJ. E.WilliamsE.MennickeA. (2022). Interpersonal violence experiences and disclosure patterns for lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer+, and heterosexual university students. Journal of Family Violence, 37(3), 505–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00268-3
63.
PaludiM. A. (Ed.). (2016). Campus action against sexual assault: Needs, policies, procedures, and training programs: Needs, policies, procedures, and training programs. ABC-CLIO.
64.
Paolo SeneseV.De NicolaA.PassaroA.RuggieroG. (2018). The factorial structure of a 15-item version of the Italian empathy quotient scale. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 34, 344–351. http://doi.org./10.1027/1015-5759/a000348
65.
PerryD.WalderK.HendlerT.Shamay-TsooryS. G. (2013). The gender you are and the gender you like: Sexual preference and empathic neural responses. Brain Research, 1534, 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2013.08.040
66.
PetersonR. A.MerunkaD. R. (2014). Convenience samples of college students and research reproducibility. Journal of Business Research, 67, 1035–1041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.08.010
67.
PettyJohnM. E.MuzzeyF. K.MaasM. K.McCauleyH. L. (2019). #HowIWillChange: Engaging men and boys in the# MeToo movement. Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 20(4), 612–622. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000186.
68.
PitagoraD. (2013). Consent vs. coercion: BDSM interactions highlight a fine but immutable line. The New School Psychology Bulletin, 10, 27–36.
69.
PlaxtonM. (2015). Implied consent and sexual assault: Intimate relationships, autonomy, and voice. McGill-Queen’s University Press.
70.
RamslandK.McGrainP. N. (2009) Inside the minds of sexual predators. ABC-CLIO.
71.
RichardsA. V. (2017). The legal framework of consent is worthless. In StrykerK. (Ed.), Ask: Building consent culture (pp. 107–116). Thorntree Press.
RyanK. M. (2011). The relationship between rape myths and sexual scripts: The social construction of rape. Sex Roles, 65(11–12), 774–782. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0033-2
74.
SettyE. (2022). Educating teenage boys about consent: the law and affirmative consent in boys’ socio-sexual cultures and subjectivities. Sex Roles, 87, 515–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2023.2259321
75.
SettyE. (2025). Young people and sexual consent: contextualising ‘miscommunication’ amid ‘grey areas’ of ambiguity and ambivalence. Sex Education, 25, 140–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01335-9
76.
SheffE. (2021). Kinky sex gone wrong: Legal prosecutions concerning consent, age play, and death via BDSM. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50, 761–771. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01866-w
77.
SkovM.van MastrigtS.JensenA. V. (2022). Comparing rape myth acceptance among police trainees and medical students: A preliminary Danish validation of the updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Violence Against Women, 28, 2649–2676. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778012211038967
78.
StraussC. (2004). Is empathy gendered and, if so, why? An approach from feminist psychological anthropology. Ethos, 32(4), 432–457. https://doi.org/10.1525/eth.2004.32.4.432
79.
WatsonP. J.BidermanM. D.SawrieS. M. (1994). Empathy, sex role orientation, and narcissism. Sex Roles, 30, 701–723.
80.
WorthenM. (2020). Queers, bis, and straight lies: An intersectional examination of LGBTQ stigma. Routledge.
81.
XueJ.FangG.HuangH.CuiN.RhodesK. V.GellesR. (2019). Rape myths and the cross-cultural adaptation of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in China. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34, 1428–1460. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516651315
