On the Overlap of Commercial Sexual Exploitation and Intimate Partner Violence: An Exploratory Examination of Trauma-Related Shame

Abstract

Every year, millions of people experience intimate partner violence (IPV) and commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), with researchers increasingly discussing the overlap between these two forms of interpersonal violence. However, researchers have not yet used quantitative methods to examine the link between IPV and CSE or to explore potential mechanisms underlying the overlap, including child maltreatment risk factors and psychological mechanisms. One potential mechanism is trauma-related shame, a symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder commonly experienced by both victims of CSE and IPV. The current study explores trauma-related shame, childhood maltreatment, and IPV and their associations with CSE using a sample of 174 primarily Black women. Binomial logistic regression is used to analyze the impact of IPV, child abuse and neglect, and trauma-related shame on CSE. Results indicate that IPV and trauma-related shame are both significant predictors of CSE. Implications for future research and the incorporation of shame in trauma-related treatment are discussed.

Keywords

trauma shame commercial sexual exploitation sex work intimate partner violence

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aakvaag

H. F.

Thoresen

Strøm

I. F.

Myhre

(2019). Shame predicts revictimization in victims of childhood violence: A prospective study of a general Norwegian population sample. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 11(1), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000373

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).

Arata

C. M.

(2000). From child victim to adult victim: A model for predicting sexual revictimization. Child Maltreatment, 5(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559500005001004

Arata

C. M.

(2002). Child sexual abuse and sexual revictimization. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(2), 135–164. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.9.2.135

Banyard

V. L.

Williams

L. M.

Siegel

J. A.

(2003). The impact of complex trauma and depression on parenting: An exploration of mediating risk and protective factors. Child Maltreatment, 8(4), 334–349.

Black

M. C.

Basile

K. C.

Breiding

M. J.

Smith

S. G.

Walters

M. L.

Merrick

M. T.

Chen

Stevens

M. R.

(2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Budden

(2009). The role of shame in posttraumatic stress disorder: A proposal for a socio-emotional model for DSM-V. Social Science & Medicine, 69, 1032–1039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.07.032

Capaldi

D. M.

Knoble

N. B.

Shortt

J. W.

Kim

H. K.

(2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 231–280. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Fast Facts: Preventing Intimate Partner Violence. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/fastfact.html#print

10.

Clawson

Dutch

Solomon

Grace

L. G.

(2009). Human trafficking into and within the United States. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/07/humantrafficking/litrev/index.pdf

11.

De Vries

Goggin

K. E

. (2020). The impact of childhood abuse on the commercial sexual exploitation of youth: A systematic review and meta-Analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(5), 886–903. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018801332

12.

Decker

M. R.

Pearson

Illangasekare

S. L.

Clark

Sherman

S. G.

(2013). Violence against women in sex work and HIV risk implications differ qualitatively by perpetrator. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 876. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-876

13.

Estes

R. J.

Weiner

N. A.

(2001). The commercial sexual exploitation of children in the U.S., Canada and Mexico. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, School of Social Work, Center for the Study of Youth Policy.

14.

Evans

H. R.

(2019). From the voices of domestic sex trafficking survivors: Experiences of complex trauma and posttraumatic growth [Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania]. Scholarly Commons.

15.

Finkelhor

Browne

(1985). The traumatic impact of childhood sexual abuse: A conceptualization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55, 530–541. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1985.tb02703.x

16.

Flury

Nyberg

Riecher-Rössler

(2010). Domestic violence against women: Definitions, epidemiology, risk factors and consequences. Swiss Medical Weekly, 140(3536), 13099–13105. https://doi.org/10.4414/smw.2010.13099

17.

Franchino-Olsen

(2021). Vulnerabilities relevant for commercial sexual exploitation of children/domestic minor sex trafficking: A systematic review of risk factors. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(1), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018821956

18.

Friedman

M. J.

(2013). Finalizing PTSD in DSM-5: Getting here from there and where to go next. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(5), 548–556. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21840

19.

Gerassi

(2015). From exploitation to industry: Definitions, risks, and consequences of domestic sexual exploitation and sex work among women and girls. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 25(6), 591–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2014.991055

20.

Gibson

L. E.

Leitenberg

(2001). The impact of child sexual abuse and stigma on methods of coping with sexual assault among undergraduate women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1343–1361.

21.

Gil-Gonzalez

Vives-Cases

Ruiz

M. T.

Carrasco-Portino

Alvarez-Dardet

(2008). Childhood experiences of violence in perpetrators as a risk factor of intimate partner violence: A systematic review. Journal of Public Health, 30(1), 14–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdm071

22.

Goldmann

Aiello

Uddin

Delva

Koenen

Gant

L. M.

Galea

(2011). Pervasive exposure to violence and posttraumatic stress disorder in a predominantly African American urban community: The Detroit neighborhood health study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(6), 747–751. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20705

23.

Harman

Lee

(2010). The role of shame and self-critical thinking in the development and maintenance of current threat in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 17, 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.636

24.

Held

Owens

G. P.

Anderson

S. E.

(2015). The interrelationships among trauma-related guilt and shame, disengagement coping, and PTSD in a sample of treatment-seeking substance abusers. Traumatology, 21(4), 285–292. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000050

25.

Herman

J. L.

(2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder as a shame disorder. In Dearing

R. L.

Tangney

J. P.

(Eds.), Shame in the therapy hour (pp. 261–275). American Psychological Association.

26.

Herrenkohl

T. I.

Sousa

Tajima

E. A.

Herrenkohl

R. C.

Moylan

C. A.

(2008). Intersection of child abuse and children’s exposure to domestic violence. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 9(2), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008314797

27.

Hong

Zhang

Liu

Zhou

(2013). Partner violence and psychosocial distress among female sex workers in China. PLoS One, 8(4), e62290. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062290

28.

Horowitz

Weine

Jekel

(1995). PTSD symptoms in urban adolescent girls: Compounded community trauma. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(10), 1353–1361. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199510000-00021

29.

Hossain

Zimmerman

Abas

Light

Watts

(2010). The relationship of trauma to mental disorders among trafficked and sexually exploited girls and women. American Journal of Public Health, 100(12), 2442–2449.

30.

Houskamp

B. M.

Foy

D. W.

(1991). The assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in battered women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 6(3), 367–375.

31.

International Labour Organization (2022). Global estimates of modern slavery: Forced labour and forced marriage. https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/publications/WCMS_854795/lang–en/index.htm

32.

Jehu

(1988). Beyond sexual abuse. John Wiley.

33.

Kramer

L. A.

Berg

E. C.

(2003). A survival analysis of timing of entry into prostitution: The differential impact of race, educational level, and childhood/adolescent risk factors. Sociological Inquiry, 73(4), 511–528.

34.

La Bash

Papa

. (2014). Shame and PTSD symptoms. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(2), 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032637

35.

Lawrence

A. E.

Taft

C. T.

(2013). Shame, posttraumatic stress disorder, and intimate partner violence perpetration. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(2), 191–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.10.002

36.

Lee

D. A.

Scragg

Turner

(2001). The role of shame and guilt in traumatic events: A clinical model of shame-based and guilt-based PTSD. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74(4), 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711201161109

37.

Macy

R. J.

Johns

(2011). Aftercare services for international sex trafficking survivors: Informing U.S. service and program development in an emerging practice area. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 12(2), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838010390709

38.

Øktedalen

Hagtvert

K. A.

Hoffart

Langkass

T. F.

Smucker

(2014). The trauma-related shame inventory: Measuring trauma-related shame among patients with PTSD. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36, 600–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9422-5

39.

Øktedalen

Hoffart

Langkass

T. F.

(2015). Trauma-related shame and guilt as time-varying predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during imagery exposure and imagery rescripting—A randomized controlled trial. Psychotherapy Research, 25(5), 518–532. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2014.917217

40.

Pack

A. P.

L’Engle

Mwarogo

Kingola

(2014). Intimate partner violence against female sex workers in Mombasa, Kenya. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 16(3), 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691058.2013.857046

41.

Potter

(2006). An argument for black feminist criminology: Understanding African American women’s experiences with intimate partner abuse using an integrated approach. Feminist Criminology, 1(2), 106–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085106286547

42.

Rand

(2010). It can’t happen in my backyard: The commercial sexual exploitation of girls in the United States. Child & Youth Services, 31(3–4), 138–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/0145935X.2009.524480

43.

Reed

S. M.

Kennedy

M. A.

Decker

M. R.

Cimino

A. N.

(2019). Friends, family, and boyfriends: An analysis of relationship pathways into commercial sexual exploitation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 90, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.01.016

44.

Reid

J. A.

Sullivan

C. J.

(2009). A model of vulnerability for adult sexual victimization: The impact of attachment, child maltreatment, and scarred sexuality. Violence and Victims, 24, 485–501. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.24.4.485

45.

Reid

J. A.

(2010). A pathway to child sex trafficking in prostitution: The impact of strain and risk-inflating responses [Doctoral Dissertation, University of South Florida]. Scholar Commons.

46.

Reid

J. A.

(2011). An exploratory model of girl’s vulnerability to commercial sexual exploitation in prostitution. Child Maltreatment, 16(2), 146–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559511404700

47.

Reid

J. A.

(2018). The imprint of childhood abuse on trauma-related shame in adulthood. Dignity: A Journal on Sexual Exploitation and Violence, 3(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.23860/dignity.2018.03.01.04

48.

Reid

J. A.

Tara

Richards Teresa

Kulig

(2020). Human trafficking and intimate partner violence. In Geffner

Vieth

Vaughan-Eden

Rosenbaum

Hamberger

White

(eds.), Handbook of interpersonal violence and abuse across the lifespan (pp. 3339-3360). Springer.

49.

Roe-Sepowitz

D. E.

(2012). Juvenile entry into prostitution: The role of emotional abuse. Violence Against Women, 18(5), 562–579. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212453140

50.

Roe-Sepowitz

D. E.

Hickle

K. E.

Dahlstedt

Gallagher

(2014). Victim or whore: The similarities and differences between victim’s experiences of domestic violence and sex trafficking. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 24(8), 883–898. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2013.840552

51.

Rosenfield

P. J.

Stratyner

Tufekcioglu

Karabell

McKelvey

Litt

(2018). Complex PTSD in ICD-11: A case report on a new diagnosis. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 24(5), 364. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000327

52.

Sampsel

Deutscher

Duchesne

(2023). Intimate partner violence and human trafficking: trauma we may not identify. Emergency Medicine Clinics, 41(1), 101–116.

53.

Siegel

J. A.

Williams

L. M.

(2001a). Risk factors for violent victimization of women: A prospective study, final report (NCJ Publication No. 189161). National Institute of Justice.

54.

Siegel

J. A.

Williams

L. M.

(2001b). Risk factors for violent victimization of women in a major northwestern city, 1990–1991 and 1996–1997 [Computer File]. ISPSR03052-v1. Rutgers University/Wellesley/Wellesley College [producers]. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor].

55.

Siegel

J. A.

Williams

L. M.

(2003). Risk factors for sexual victimization of women: Results from a prospective study. Violence Against Women, 9(8), 902–930. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801203255130

56.

Stark

Hodgson

(2004). Sister oppressions: A comparison of wife battering and prostitution. Journal of Trauma Practice, 2(3–4), 16–32. https://doi.org/10.1300/J189v02n03_02

57.

Stoltz

J.-A. M.

Shannon

Kerr

Zhang

Montaner

J. S.

Wood

(2007). Associations between childhood maltreatment and sex work in a cohort of drug-using youth. Social Science & Medicine, 65(6), 1214–1221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.05.005

58.

Taft

C. T.

Bryant-Davis

Woodward

H. E.

Tillman

Torres

S. E.

(2009). Intimate partner violence against African American women: An examination of the socio-cultural context. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(1), 50–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2008.10.001

59.

Tangney

J. P.

Stuewig

Mashek

D. J.

(2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 345–372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145

60.

Taylor

T. F.

(2015). The influence of shame on posttrauma disorders: Have we failed to see the obvious? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(1), 28847. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v6.28847

61.

Van Bruggen

L. K.

Runtz

M. G.

Kadlec

. (2006). Sexual revictimization: The role of sexual self-esteem and dysfunctional sexual behaviors. Child Maltreatment, 11(2), 131–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559505285780

62.

Verhoeven

van Gestel

de Jong

Kleemans

(2015). Relationships between suspects and victims of sex trafficking. Exploitation of prostitutes and domestic violence parallels in Dutch trafficking cases. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 21(1), 49–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-013-9226-2

63.

Walsh

Koenen

K. C.

Aiello

A. E.

Uddin

Galea

(2014). Prevalence of sexual violence and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban African-American population. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 16(6), 1307–1310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-013-9840-6

64.

West

C. M.

(2002). Battered, black, and blue: An overview of violence in the lives of Black women. Women & Therapy, 25(3–4), 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1300/J015v25n03_02

65.

West

C. M.

(2004). Black women and intimate partner violence: New directions for research. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19(12), 1487–1493. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605042697