Females exposed to child sexual abuse (CSA) are at an increased risk of experiencing further victimization in adolescence. Associations between CSA and several forms of cyber and in-person peer bullying victimization were assessed in a prospective, longitudinal study. Females exposed to substantiated CSA and a matched comparison group (N = 422) were followed over a two-year period. Bullying experiences were assessed in both survey and qualitative interviews. Qualitative data were coded and used to describe the types (e.g., cyber, physical, verbal), and foci (e.g., threats, physical appearance) of bullying victimization. Logistic regression was used to assess the odds that CSA was associated with subsequent bullying victimization, adjusted for demographics, social networking use, and prior bullying. CSA-exposed females were at an increased risk of multiple forms of bullying victimization with a persistent risk of bullying victimization over time. Specifically, they had 2.6 times higher odds of experiencing any bullying at follow-up, 2.9 times higher odds of experiencing cyberbullying at follow-up, and 2 times higher odds of experiencing combined cyber/in-person bullying at follow-up. CSA-exposed females were more likely than comparison females to experience bullying regarding their appearance/weight and dating relationships. Findings provide further insight into the unique circumstances of the cyberbullying and in-person bullying experienced by CSA-exposed females. Females exposed to child sexual abuse (CSA) are at an increased risk of experiencing bullying victimization, specifically cyberbullying and combined cyber/in-person bullying, as well as bullying about their appearance and dating relationships. These findings indicate that bullying prevention needs to include trauma-focused components to target these uniquely vulnerable females.
AdamsR. E., & BukowskiW. M. (2007). Relationships with mothers and peers moderate the association between childhood sexual abuse and anxiety disorders. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(6), 645–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.011
2.
ArataC. M. (2000). From child victim to adult victim: A model for predicting sexual revictimization. Child Maltreatment, 5(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559500005001004
3.
BarnesJ. E., NollJ. G., PutnamF. W., & TrickettP. K. (2009). Sexual and physical revictimization among victims of severe childhood sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33(7), 412–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.09.013
4.
BarthJ., BermetzL., HeimE., TrelleS., & ToniaT. (2013). The current prevalence of child sexual abuse worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Public Health, 58(3), 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-012-0426-1
5.
BebbingtonP. E., CooperC., MinotS., BrughaT. S., JenkinsR., MeltzerH., & DennisM. (2009). Suicide attempts, gender, and sexual abuse: Data from the 2000 British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(10), 1135–1140. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030310
6.
BenediniK. M., FaganA. A., & GibsonC. L. (2016). The cycle of victimization: The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent peer victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 59, 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.08.003
7.
BickJ., ZajacK., RalstonM. E., & SmithD. (2014). Convergence and divergence in reports of maternal support following childhood sexual abuse: Prevalence and associations with youth psychosocial adjustment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(3), 479–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.11.010
8.
BucchianeriM. M., GowerA. L., McMorrisB. J., & EisenbergM. E. (2016). Youth experiences with multiple types of prejudice-based harassment. Journal of Adolescence, 51, 68–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.012
9.
CraigW., Boniel-NissimM., KingN., WalshS. D., BoerM., DonnellyP. D., Harel-FischY., Malinowska-CieślikM., Gaspar de MatosM., CosmaA., Van den EijndenR.VienoA., ElgarF. J., MolchoM., BjereldY., & PickettW. (2020). Social media use and cyber-bullying: A cross-national analysis of young people in 42 countries. Journal of Adolescent Health, 66(6), S100–S108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.03.006
10.
EisenbergM. E., AckardD. M., & ResnickM. D. (2007). Protective factors and suicide risk in adolescents with a history of sexual abuse. The Journal of Pediatrics, 151(5), 482–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.04.033
11.
FeiringC., RosenthalS., & TaskaL. (2000). Stigmatization and the development of friendship and romantic relationships in adolescent victims of sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment, 5(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559500005004003
12.
FilipasH. H., & UllmanS. E. (2006). Child sexual abuse, coping responses, self-blame, posttraumatic stress disorder, and adult sexual revictimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(5), 652-672.
13.
FinkelhorD. (2009). The prevention of childhood sexual abuse. The Future of Children, 19(2), 169–194.
14.
FinkelhorD., OrmrodR. K., & TurnerH. A. (2007). Polyvictimization and trauma in a national longitudinal cohort. Development and Psychopathology, 19(1), 149–166. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579407070083
15.
GartheR. C., SullivanT. N., & McDanielM. A. (2017). A meta-analytic review of peer risk factors and adolescent dating violence. Psychology of Violence, 7(1), 45–57. http://dx.doi.org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1037/vio0000040
16.
GeyerR. W. (2009). Developing the Internet-Savviness (IS) Scale: Investigating the relationships between Internet use and academically talented middle school youth. RMLE Online, 32(5), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2009.11462058
17.
GladdenR. M., Vivolo-KantorA. M., HamburgerM. E., & LumpkinC. D. (2014). Bullying surveillance among youths: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements (No. 1; p. 116). Centers for Disease Control.
18.
HailesH. P., YuR., DaneseA., & FazelS. (2019). Long-term outcomes of childhood sexual abuse: An umbrella review. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6(10), 830–839. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30286-X
19.
HébertM., CénatJ. M., BlaisM., LavoieF., & GuerrierM. (2016). Child sexual abuse, bullying, cyberbullying, and mental health problems among high school students: A moderated mediated model. Depression and Anxiety, 33(7), 623–629. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22504
20.
HébertM., MoreauC., BlaisM., LavoieF., & GuerrierM. (2017). Child sexual abuse as a risk factor for teen dating violence: Findings from a representative sample of Quebec youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 10(1), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-016-0119-7
21.
HongJ. S., & EspelageD. L. (2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school: An ecological system analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.03.003
22.
KennedyR. S. (2019). Bullying trends in the United States: A meta-regression. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1524838019888555. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019888555
23.
LacelleC., HebertM., LavoieF., VitaroF., & TremblayR. E. (2012). Child sexual abuse and women’s sexual health: The contribution of CSA severity and exposure to multiple forms of childhood victimization adult survivors of child sexual abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 21(5), 571–592.
24.
LereyaS. T., CopelandW. E., CostelloE. J., & WolkeD. (2015). Adult mental health consequences of peer bullying and maltreatment in childhood: Two cohorts in two countries. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(6), 524–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00165-0
25.
LiY., Doyle LynchA., KalvinC., LiuJ., & LernerR. M. (2011). Peer relationships as a context for the development of school engagement during early adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35(4), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025411402578
26.
MulveyK. L., HoffmanA. J., GönültaşS., HopeE. C., & CooperS. M. (2018). Understanding experiences with bullying and bias-based bullying: What matters and for whom? Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 702–711. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000206
27.
NickersonA. B. (2019). Preventing and intervening with bullying in schools: A framework for evidence-based practice. School Mental Health, 11(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9221-8
28.
NollJ. G. (2021). Child sexual abuse as a unique risk factor for the development of psychopathology: The compounded convergence of mechanisms. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-112621
29.
NollJ. G., ShenkC. E., BarnesJ. E., & HaralsonK. J. (2013). Association of maltreatment with high-risk internet behaviors and offline encounters. Pediatrics, 131(2), e510–e517. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-1281
30.
NollJ. G., ShenkC. E., BarnesJ. E., & PutnamF. W. (2009). Childhood abuse, avatar choices, and other risk factors associated with internet-initiated victimization of adolescent girls. Pediatrics, 123(6), e1078–e1083. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-2983
31.
NollJ. G., ZellerM. H., TrickettP. K., & PutnamF. W. (2007). Obesity risk for female victims of childhood sexual abuse: A prospective study. Pediatrics, 120(1), e61–e67. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-3058
32.
PittengerS. L., PogueJ. K., & HansenD. J. (2018). Predicting sexual revictimization in childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal examination using ecological systems theory. Child Maltreatment, 23(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559517733813
33.
RuizA. L., & FontS. A. (2020). Role of childhood maltreatment on weight and weight-related behaviors in adulthood. Health Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0001027
34.
SawyerS. M., AzzopardiP. S., WickremarathneD., & PattonG. C. (2018). The age of adolescence. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 2(3), 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(18)30022-1
35.
SchneiderS. K., O’DonnellL., & SmithE. (2015). Trends in cyberbullying and school bullying victimization in a regional census of high school students, 2006–2012. Journal of School Health, 85(9), 611–620. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12290
36.
ShenkC. E., NollJ. G., PeughJ. L., GriffinA. M., & BensmanH. E. (2016). Contamination in the prospective study of child maltreatment and female adolescent health. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 41(1), 37–45. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsv017
37.
SmolakL., & MurnenS. K. (2002). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between child sexual abuse and eating disorders. The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(2), 136–150. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.10008
38.
SwanstonH. Y., PlunkettA. M., O’TooleB. I., ShrimptonS., ParkinsonP. N., & OatesR. K. (2003). Nine years after child sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(8), 967–984. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(03)00143-1
39.
TebbuttJ., SwanstonH., OatesR. K., & O’tooleB. I. (1997). Five years after child sexual abuse: Persisting dysfunction and problems of prediction. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(3), 330–339. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199703000-00011
40.
Tremblay-PerreaultA., AmédéeL. M., & HébertM. (2017). Peer victimization in sexually abused children: The mediating role of post-traumatic stress symptoms. International Journal of Child and Adolescent Resilience (IJCAR), 5(1), 4–19.
41.
van GeelM., GoemansA., ZwaanswijkW., GiniG., & VedderP. (2018). Does peer victimization predict low self-esteem, or does low self-esteem predict peer victimization? Meta-analyses on longitudinal studies. Developmental Review, 49, 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.07.001
42.
van SmedenM., MoonsK. G., de GrootJ. A., CollinsG. S., AltmanD. G., EijkemansM. J., & ReitsmaJ. B. (2019). Sample size for binary logistic prediction models: Beyond events per variable criteria. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 28(8), 2455–2474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0962280218784726
43.
WaasdorpT. E., & BradshawC. P. (2015). The overlap between cyberbullying and traditional bullying. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 56(5), 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.12.002
44.
WidomC. S., CzajaS. J., & DuttonM. A. (2008). Childhood victimization and lifetime revictimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(8), 785–796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.12.006
45.
WolfeD. A., CrooksC. C., ChiodoD., & JaffeP. (2009). Child maltreatment, bullying, gender-based harassment, and adolescent dating violence: Making the connections. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33(1), 21–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01469.x
46.
YatesT., GregorM., & HavilandM. (2012). Child maltreatment, alexithymia, and problematic Internet use in young adulthood. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15, 219–225. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0427
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
