Longitudinal Investigation of Depression,Intimate Partner Violence,and Supports Among Vulnerable Families

Abstract

Intimate partner violence (IPV) affects nearly 12 million individuals and their families each year in the United States. Many negative outcomes are associated with IPV, with depression being one of the most prevalent mental health problems. Most previous studies on IPV have used cross-sectional designs to examine the potential protective effects of support on depression. The current study fills this gap by conducting a longitudinal investigation of the roles of social support and family resources on depression among caregivers of young children. The study sample consisted of 548 female caregivers. Findings suggest that among those with an IPV history, those with higher social support reported lower depressive symptoms than those with less social support. No significant interaction was found for family resources and IPV. Rather, family resources had a main effect on depressive symptoms with no differential impact based on IPV status. Findings suggest the importance of connecting vulnerable families to supports such as social support and family resources to help mitigate depressive symptoms. Future research should consider the underlying mechanisms of social support as a protective factor among IPV victims with depression.

Keywords

domestic violence depression social support family resources

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

Bassuk

E. L.

Dawson

Huntington

(2006). Intimate partner violence in extremely poor women: Longitudinal patterns and risk markers. Journal of Family Violence, 21, 387-399.

Bates

Maechler

Bolker

B. M.

Walker

S. C.

(2014). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/pdf/1406.5823v1.pdf

Beasley

L. O.

Silovsky

J. F.

Ridings

L. E.

Smith

T. J.

Owora

A. H

. (2015). Understanding program engagement and attrition in child abuse prevention. Journal of Family Strengths, 14, 1-24.

Beck

A. T.

(1967). The diagnosis and management of the emotional disorders. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Beck

A. T.

Steer

R. A.

Brown

G. K.

(1996). Beck Depression Inventory-II manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

Beeble

M. L.

Bybee

Sullivan

C. M.

Adams

A. E.

(2009). Main, mediating, and moderating effects of social support on the well-being of survivors of intimate partner violence across 2 years. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 718-729.

Brannan

A. M.

Manteuffel

Holden

E. W.

Heflinger

C. A.

(2006). Use of the family resource scale in children’s mental health: Reliability and validity among economically diverse samples. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 33, 182-197.

Campbell

J. C.

(2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. The Lancet, 359, 1331-1336.

10.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Adverse childhood experiences study. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/acestudy/about.html

11.

Chaffin

Bonner

B. L.

Hill

(2001). Family preservation and family support programs: Child maltreatment outcomes across client risk levels and program types. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1269-1289.

12.

Chaffin

Silovsky

J. F.

Funderburk

Valle

L. A.

Brestan

E. V.

Balachova

. . . Bonner

B. L.

(2004). Parent-child interaction therapy with physically abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology, 72, 500-510.

13.

Chaffin

Valle

Funderburk

Gurwitch

Silovsky

J. F.

Bard

. . . Kees

(2009). A motivational intervention can improve retention in PCIT for low-motivation child welfare clients. Child Maltreatment, 14, 356-368.

14.

Coker

A. L.

Davis

K. E.

Arias

I. A.

Desai

Sanderson

Brandt

H. M.

Smith

P. H.

(2002). Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 23, 260-268.

15.

Coker

A. L.

Derrick

Lumpkin

Aldrich

Oldendick

(2000). Help-seeking for intimate partner violence and forced sex in South Carolina. American Journal of Preventative Medicine, 19, 316-320.

16.

Counts

J. M.

Buffington

E. S.

Chang-Rios

Rasmussen

H. N.

Preacher

K. J.

(2010). The development and validation of the protective factors survey: A self-report measure of protective factors against child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 762-772.

17.

Cutrona

C. E.

Russell

D. W.

(1987). The provisions of social relationships and adaptation to stress. In Jones

W. H.

Perlman

(Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (pp. 37-67). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

18.

Dube

S. R.

Anda

R. F.

Felitti

V. J.

Edwards

V. J.

Williamson

D. F.

(2002). Exposure to abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction among adults who witnessed intimate partner violence as children: Implications for health and social services. Violence and Victims, 17, 3-17.

19.

Duggan

A. K.

Fuddy

Burrell

Higman

S. M.

McFarlane

Windham

Sia

(2004). Randomized trial of a statewide home visiting program to prevent child abuse: Impact in reducing parental risk factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 623-643.

20.

Duggan

A. K.

McFarlane

E. C.

Windham

A. M.

Rohde

C. A.

Salkever

D. S.

Fuddy

. . . Sia

C. C.

(1999). Evaluation of Hawaii’s healthy start program. The Future of Children, 9, 66-90.

21.

Dunst

C. J.

Leet

H. E.

(1987). Measuring the adequacy of resources in households with young children. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 13, 111-125.

22.

Eckenrode

Ganzel

Henderson

C. R.

Smith

Old

D. L.

Powers

. . . Sidora

(2000). Preventing child abuse and neglect with a program of nurse home visitation: The limiting effects of domestic violence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 1385-1391.

23.

Ehrensaft

M. K.

Moffitt

Caspi

(2006). Is domestic violence followed by an increased risk of psychiatric disorders among women but not among men? A longitudinal cohort study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 885-892.

24.

El-Bassel

Gilbert

Rajah

Folleno

Frye

(2001). Social support among women in methadone treatment who experience partner violence: Isolation and male con- trolling behavior. Violence Against Women, 7, 246-275.

25.

Ergh

T. C.

Hanks

R. A.

Rapport

L. R.

Coleman

R. D.

(2003). Social support moderates caregiver life satisfaction following traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 1090-1101.

26.

Fergusson

Horwood

Ridder

(2005). Partner violence and mental health outcomes in a New Zealand birth cohort. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 1103-1119.

27.

Fortin

Guay

Lavoie

Boisvert

Beaudry

(2012). Intimate partner violence and psychological distress among young couples: Analysis of the moderating effect of social support. Journal of Family Violence, 27, 63-73.

28.

Fowler

D. N.

Hill

H. M.

(2004). Social support and spirituality as culturally relevant factors in coping among African American women survivors of partner abuse. Violence Against Women, 10, 1267-1282.

29.

Garbarino

(1983). Social support networks: RX for the helping professionals. In Whittaker

Garbarino

(Eds.), Social support networks: Informal helping in the human services (pp. 3-28). New York, NY: Aldine.

30.

Golding

J. M.

(1999). Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 14, 99-132.

31.

Gonzalez-Guarda

R. M.

Peragallo

Vasquez

E. P.

Urrutia

M. T.

Mitrani

V. B.

(2009). Intimate partner violence, depression, and resource availability among a community sample of Hispanic women. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 30, 227-236.

32.

Goodkind

J. R.

Gillum

T. L.

Bybee

D. I.

Sullivan

C. M.

(2003). The impact of family and friends’ reactions on the well-being of women with abusive partners. Violence Against Women, 9, 347-373.

33.

Hage

S. M.

(2006). Profiles of women survivors: The development of agency in abusive relationships. Journal of Counseling & Development, 84, 83-94.

34.

Hutchinson

Hirschel

(1998). Abused women: Help-seeking strategies and police utilization. Violence Against Women, 4, 436-456.

35.

Jefferson

A. L.

Powers

D. V.

Pope

(2000). Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) in older women. Clinical Gerontologist, 22, 3-12.

36.

Jewkes

(2010). Emotional abuse: A neglected dimension of partner violence. The Lancet, 376, 851-852.

37.

Johnson

M. P.

(2000). Conflict and control: Images of symmetry and asymmetry in domestic violence. In Booth

Crouter

A. C.

Clements

(Eds.), Couples in conflict (pp. 178-204). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

38.

Krahé

Bieneck

Möller

(2005). Understanding gender and intimate partner violence from an international perspective. Sex Roles, 52, 807-827.

39.

Krishnan

Hilbert

Leeuwen

(2001). Domestic violence and help-seeking behaviors among rural women: Results from a shelter-based study. Family Community Health, 24, 28-38.

40.

Leone

J. M.

Johnson

M. P.

Cohan

L. C.

(2007). Victim help seeking: Differences between intimate terrorism and situational couple violence. Family Relations, 56, 427-439.

41.

Lutzker

Bigelow

(2002). Reducing child maltreatment: A guidebook for parent services. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

42.

Maslow

(1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

43.

Mburia-Mwalili

Clements-Nolle

Lee

Shadley

Yang

(2010). Intimate partner violence and depression in population-based sample of women: Can social support help? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 2258-2278.

44.

McCosker

Barnard

Gerber

(2003). Phenomenographic study of women’s experiences of domestic violence during the childbearing years. Retrieved from www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Volume92004/No1Jan04/ArticlePreviousTopic/ChildbearingDomesticViolence.aspx

45.

Meadows

L. A.

Kaslow

N. J.

Thompson

M. P.

Jurkovic

G. J.

(2005). Protective factors against suicide attempt risk among African American women experiencing intimate partner violence. American Journal of Community Psychology, 36, 109-121.

46.

Mitchell

M. D.

Hargrove

G. L.

Collins

M. H.

Thompson

M. P.

Reddick

T. L.

Kaslow

N. J.

(2006). Coping variables that mediate the relation between intimate partner violence and mental health outcomes among low-income, African American women. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1503-1520.

47.

National SafeCare Training and Research Center. (2015). Available from www.nstrc.org

48.

Nurius

P. S.

Macy

R. J.

Bhuyan

Holt

V. L.

Kernic

M. A.

Rivara

F. P.

(2003). Contextualizing depression and physical functioning in battered women: Adding vulnerability and resources to the analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1411-1431.

49.

O’Campo

McDonnell

Gielen

Burke

Chen

(2002). Surviving physical and sexual abuse: What helps low-income women? Patient Education & Counseling, 46, 205-212.

50.

Panganiban-Corales

A. T.

Medina

M. F.

Jr. (2011). Family resources study: Part 1: Family resources, family function and caregiver strain in childhood cancer. Asia Pacific Family Medicine, 10, 14.

51.

Pico-Alfonso

M. A.

Garcia-Linares

M. I.

Celda-Navarro

Blasco-Ros

Echeburua

Martinez

(2006). The impact of physical, psychological, and sexual intimate male partner violence on women’s mental health: Depressive symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder, state anxiety, and suicide. Journal of Women’s Health, 15, 599-611.

52.

Proctor

L. J.

Aarons

G. A.

Dubowitz

English

D. J.

Lewis

Thompson

. . . Roesch

S. C.

(2012). Trajectories of maltreatment re-reports from ages 4 to 12: Evidence for persistent risk after early exposure. Child Maltreatment, 17, 207-217.

53.

R Core Team. (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available from http://www.R-project.org/

54.

Riggs

D. S.

Caulfield

M. B.

Street

A. E.

(2000). Risk for domestic violence: Factors associated with perpetration and victimization. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 1289-1316.

55.

Roberts

K. J.

Lepore

S. J.

Helgeson

(2006). Social-cognitive correlates of adjustment to prostate cancer. Psycho-Oncology, 15, 183-192.

56.

Romito

Grassi

(2007). Does violence affect one gender more than another? The mental health impact of violence among male and female university students. Social Science & Medicine, 65, 1222-1234.

57.

Segal

D. L.

Coolidge

F. L.

Cahill

B. S.

O’Riley

A. A.

(2008). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) among community-dwelling older adults. Behavior Modification, 32, 3-20.

58.

Silovsky

J. F.

Bard

Chaffin

Hecht

Burris

Owora

. . . Lutzker

(2011). Prevention of child maltreatment in high-risk rural families: A randomized clinical trial with child welfare outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1435-1444.

59.

Slashinski

M. J.

Coker

A. L.

Davis

K. E.

(2003). Physical aggression, forced sex, and stalking victimization by a dating partner: An analysis of the National Violence Against Women Study. Violence and Victims, 18, 595-617.

60.

Staggs

S. L.

Long

S. M.

Mason

G. E.

Krishnan

Riger

(2007). Intimate partner violence, social support, and employment in the post-welfare reform era. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 345-367.

61.

Stark

(2007). Coercive control: How men entrap women in personal life. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

62.

Steer

R. A.

Rissmiller

D. J.

Beck

A. T.

(2000). Use of the Beck Depression Inventory-II with depressed geriatric inpatients. Behavior Research and Therapy, 38, 311-318.

63.

Straus

M. A.

(2004). Prevalence of violence against dating partners by male and female university students worldwide. Violence Against Women, 10, 790-811.

64.

Straus

M. A.

Hamby

Boney-McCoy

Sugarman

(1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283-316.

65.

Tan

Basta

Sullivan

C. M.

Davidson

(1995). The role of social support in the lives of women exiting domestic violence shelters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10, 437-452.

66.

Temple

J. R.

Weston

Marshall

L. L.

(2005). Physical and mental health outcomes of women in nonviolent, unilaterally violent, and mutually violent relationships. Violence and Victims, 20, 335-359.

67.

Therneau

Atkinson

Ripley

(2015). rpart: Recursive Partitioning and Regression Trees (R package version 4.1-9). Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=rpart

68.

Tjaden

Thoennes

(2000). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

69.

van Buuren

Groothuis-Oudshoorn

. (2011). mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45, 1-67.

70.

Yoshioka

Gilbert

El-Bassel

Baig-Amin

(2003). Social support and disclosure of abuse: Comparing South Asian, African American, and Hispanic battered women. Journal of Family Violence, 18, 171-180.

71.

Zlotnick

Johnson

D. M.

Kohn

(2006). Intimate partner violence and long-term psychosocial functioning in a national sample of American women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 262-275.