This study was to explore the factors associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) in Nepal. A sample of 3,373 married women was taken from the 2011 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey. Multilevel logistic regression methods were used to analyze the data. The results show that 28.31% of the population experienced the IPV in the past year. The results indicate that female illiteracy, low economic status, violent family history, and a lack of decision-making autonomy were associated with IPV. Regarding family background, whether or not the husband was an alcoholic, the husband’s level of education, and a higher number of children were risk factors associated with IPV. At the community level, women most at risk of IPV were those living in the Terai region, and women belonging to underprivileged castes and ethnic groups. The findings suggest the need for context-specific policy formation and the need for the creation of the certain intervention programs designed to mitigate IPV in Nepal.
AgarwalB. (1994). A field of one’s own: Gender and land rights in South Asia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
2.
AllendorfK. (2007). Do women’s land rights promote empowerment and child health in Nepal?World Development, 35, 1975-1988. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2006.12.005
3.
AndersonS.EswaranM. (2009). What determines female autonomy? Evidence from Bangladesh. Journal of Development Economics, 90, 179-191. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2008.10.004
4.
BabuB. V.KarS. K. (2010). Domestic violence in Eastern India: Factors associated with victimization and perpetration. Public Health, 124, 136-148. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2010.01.014
5.
BhattachanK. B.SunarT. B.BhattachanY. K. (2009). Caste-based discrimination in Nepal. New Delhi: Indian Institute of Dalit Studies.
6.
BrinkerhoffM. B.LupriE. (1988). Interspousal violence. Canadian Journal of Sociology/Cahiers canadiens de sociologie, 13, 407-434. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3340814
7.
BurazeriG.RoshiE.JewkesR.JordanS.BjegovicV.LaaserU. (2005). Factors associated with spousal physical violence in Albania: Cross sectional study. British Medical Journal, 331, 197-201. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7510.197
8.
CampbellJ.JonesA. S.DienemannJ.KubJ.SchollenbergerJ.O’CampoP.GielenA. C.WynneC. (2002). Intimate partner violence and physical health consequences. Archives of Internal Medicine, 162, 1157-1163. doi:10.1001/archinte.162.10.1157
9.
CarlsonB. E. (1984). Causes and maintenance of domestic violence: An ecological analysis. The Social Service Review, 58, 569-587. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30011762
10.
DalalK.LindqvistK. (2012). A national study of the prevalence and correlates of domestic violence among women in India. Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health, 24, 265-277. doi:10.1177/1010539510384499
11.
DhakalS. (2008). Nepalese women under the shadow of domestic violence. The Lancet, 371, 547-548. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60254-8
12.
Dixon-MuellerR. (1998). Female empowerment and demographic processes: Moving beyond Cairo. Paris, France: International Union for the Scientific Study of Population.
13.
DjikanovicB.JansenH. A.OtasevicS. (2010). Factors associated with intimate partner violence against women in Serbia: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 64, 728-735. doi:10.1136/jech.2009.090415
14.
EdlesonJ. L.TolmanR. M. (1992). Intervention for men who batter: An ecological approach. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
15.
FlakeD. F. (2005). Individual, family, and community risk markers for domestic violence in Peru. Violence Against Women, 11, 353-373. doi:10.1177/1077801204272129
16.
Garcia-MorenoC.JansenH. A.EllsbergM.HeiseL.WattsC. H. (2006). Prevalence of intimate partner violence: Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. The Lancet, 368, 1260-1269. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69523-8
HeiseL. L. (1998). Violence against women an integrated, ecological framework. Violence Against Women, 4, 262-290. doi:10.1177/1077801298004003002
19.
JanssenP. A.HoltV. L.SuggN. K.EmanuelI.CritchlowC. M.HendersonA. D. (2003). Intimate partner violence and adverse pregnancy outcomes: A population-based study. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 188, 1341-1347. doi:10.1067/mob.2003.274
20.
JewkesR.LevinJ.Penn-KekanaL. (2002). Risk factors for domestic violence: Findings from a South African cross-sectional study. Social Science & Medicine, 55, 1603-1617. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00294-5
21.
KimunaS. R.DjambaY. K.CiciurkaiteG.CherukuriS. (2013). Domestic violence in India insights from the 2005-2006 National Family Health Survey. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 773-807. doi:10.1177/0886260512455867
22.
KishorS.JohnsonK. (2006). Reproductive health and domestic violence: Are the poorest women uniquely disadvantaged?Demography, 43, 293-307. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4137199
23.
KoenigM. A.AhmedS.HossainM. B.MozumderA. B. K. A. (2003). Women’s status and domestic violence in rural Bangladesh: Individual-and community-level effects. Demography, 40, 269-288. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1353%2Fdem.2003.0014
24.
KrishnanS. (2005). Gender, caste, and economic inequalities and marital violence in rural South India. Health Care for Women International, 26, 87-99. doi:10.1080/07399330490493368
25.
KuryH.Obergfell-FuchsJ.WoessnerG. (2004). The extent of family violence in Europe a comparison of national surveys. Violence Against Women, 10, 749-769. doi:10.1177/1077801204265550
26.
LamichhaneP.PuriM.TamangJ.DulalB. (2011). Women’s status and violence against young married women in rural Nepal. BMC Women’s Health, 11(1), Article 19. doi:10.1186/1472-6874-11-19
27.
LawatiM. (2005). Towards a democratic Nepal: Inclusive political institutions for a multicultural society. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
28.
LittleL.KantorG. K. (2002). Using ecological theory to understand intimate partner violence and child maltreatment. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 19(3), 133-145. doi:10.1207/S15327655JCHN1903_02
29.
MalhotraA.SchulerS. S.BoenderC. (2002, June28). Measuring women’s empowerment as a variable in international development. Commissioned paper of the Gender and Development Group of the World Bank, Washington. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/empowerment/events/feb03/pdf/malhotra.pdf
Ministry of Health and Population [Nepal], New ERA, and ICF International Inc. (2012). Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2011. Kathmandu, Nepal: Ministry of Health and Population, New ERA, and ICF International, Calverton, Maryland.
32.
OshiroA.PoudyalA. K.PoudelK. C.JimbaM.HokamaT. (2011). Intimate partner violence among general and urban poor populations in Kathmandu, Nepal. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 2073-2092. doi:10.1177/088620510372944
33.
PlichtaS. B. (2004). Intimate partner violence and physical health consequences policy and practice implications. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 1296-1323. doi:10.1177/0886260504269685
34.
Poudel-TandukarK.PoudelK. C.YasuokaJ.EtoT.JimbaM. (2008). Domestic violence against women in Nepal. The Lancet, 371, 1664. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60723-0
35.
PuriM.TamangJ.ShahI. (2011). Suffering in silence: Consequences of sexual violence within marriage among young women in Nepal. BMC Public Health, 11(1), Article 29. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-29
36.
RaniM.BonuS. (2009). Attitudes toward wife beating a cross-country study in Asia. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 1371-1397. doi:10.1177/0886260508322182
StetsJ. E.StrausM. A. (1990). Gender differences in reporting marital violence and its medical and psychological consequences. In StrausM. A.GellesR. J.SmithC. (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8, 145 families (pp. 151-165). New Jersey, United States of America: Transaction Publishers.
39.
StrausM. A. (1990). Measuring intra-family conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scale. In StrausM. A.GellesR. J.SmithC. (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptation to violence in 8, 145 families (pp. 29-45). New Jersey, United States of America: Transaction Publishers.
40.
StrausM. A.SmithC. (1990). Violence in Hispanic families in the United States: Incidence rates and structural interpretations. In StrausM. A.GellesR. J.SmithC. (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8, 145 families (pp. 341-363). New Jersey, United States of America: Transaction Publishers.
41.
SudhaS.MorrisonS. (2011). Marital violence and women’s reproductive health care in Uttar Pradesh, India. Women’s Health Issues, 21, 214-221. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2011.01.004
42.
TjadenP.ThoennesN. (2000). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
43.
TokuçB.EkukluG.AvcioğluS. (2010). Domestic violence against married women in Edirne. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 832-847. doi:10.1177/0886260509336960
44.
World Health Organization. (2001). Putting women first: Ethical and safety recommendations for research on domestic violence against women. Geneva, Switzerland: Departemnt of Gender and Women’s Health.
45.
World Health Organization. (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
