The present study prospectively explored the predictors of resistance strategies to a sexual assault situation. Participants were assessed at the beginning of an academic quarter on a number of variables, including past history of sexual victimization, perceived risk of sexual victimization, and intentions to use specific types of resistance strategies. Only women who reported being victimized over the interim ( N = 68) were included in the analyses, which suggested that women's Time 1 intentions to utilize assertive resistance strategies (e.g., physically fight, run away) and offender aggression predicted women's use of assertive resistance strategies in response to the assault that occurred over the follow-up. Women's utilization of nonforceful verbal resistance (e.g., reason, plead, quarrel) was predicted by perpetrator aggression and previous sexual victimization. Women's immobility (e.g., turn cold, freeze) during the assault that took place over the interim was predicted by experiences of childhood sexual victimization and previous sexual victimization.
Brener, N.D., McMahon, P.M., Warren, C.W., & Douglas, K.A. (1999). Forced sexual intercourse and associated health-risk behaviors among female college students in the United States. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 252-259.
5.
Conner, M., & Armitage, C.J. (1998). Extending the theory of planned behavior: A review and avenues for further research. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28, 1429-1462.
6.
Corbin, W.R., Calhoun, K.S., McNair, L.D., & Seals, K.L. (2001). The role of alcohol expectancies and alcohol consumption among sexually victimized and nonvictimized college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 297-312.
7.
Davis, K.C. (2000). Women's perceptions of and responses to sexual aggression: The alcohol myopia and anxiolysis-disinhibition theories (Doctoral dissertation, University of Washington). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 3560.
8.
Davis, K.C., George, W.H., & Norris, J. (2004). Women's responses to unwanted sexual advances: The role of alcohol and inhibition conflict. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 333-343.
9.
Finkelhor, D. (1979). Sexually victimized children. New York: Free Press.
10.
Gidycz, C., Coble, C., Latham, L., & Layman, M. (1993). Sexual assault experience in adult-hood and prior victimization experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 151-168.
11.
Gidycz, C.A., Hanson, K., & Layman, M.J. (1995). A prospective analysis of the relationships among sexual assault experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 19, 5-29.
12.
Gidycz, C.A., McNamera, J.R., & Edwards, K.M. (2006). Women's risk perception and sexual victimization: A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior: A Review Journal, 11, 441-456.
13.
Gidycz, C.A., Rich, C., Orchowski, L., King, C., & Miller, A. (2006). An evaluation of a self-defense and risk reduction program for college women: A prospective study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 173-186.
14.
Koss, M.P., & Dinero, T.E. (1988). Predictors of sexual aggression among a national sample of male college students. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 528, 133-147.
15.
Koss, M.P., & Gidycz, C.A. (1985). Sexual experience survey: Reliability and validity . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 422-423.
16.
Koss, M.P., Gidycz, C.A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.
17.
Levine-MacCombie, J., & Koss, M.P. (1986). Acquaintance rape: Effective avoidance strategies . Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 311-320.
18.
Marx, B.P., Calhoun, K.S., Wilson, A.E., & Meyerson, L.A. (2001). Sexual revictimization prevention: An outcome evaluation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 25-32.
19.
Muehlenhard, C.L., & Linton, M.A. (1987). Date rape and sexual aggression in dating situations: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling Psychology , 34, 186-196.
20.
Norris, J., Nurius, P.S., & Dimeff, L.A. (1996). Through her eyes: Factors affecting women's perception of and resistance to acquaintance sexual aggression threat. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 123-145.
21.
Nurius, P.S. (2000). Risk perception for acquaintance sexual aggression: A social-cognitive perspective. Aggression and Violent Behavior , 5, 63-78.
22.
Nurius, P.S., Norris, J., Dimeff, L.A., Graham, T.L. (1996). Expectations regarding acquaintance sexual aggression among sorority and fraternity members. Sex Roles, 35, 427-444.
23.
Nurius, P.S., Norris, J., Macy, R.J., & Huang, B. (2004). Women's situational coping with acquaintance sexual assault. Violence Against Women, 10, 450-478.
24.
Nurius, P.S., Norris, J., Young, D.S., Graham, T.L., & Gaylord, J. (2000). Interpreting and defensively responding to threat: Examining appraisals and coping with acquaintance sexual aggression. Violence and Victims, 15, 187-208.
25.
Risin, L.I., & Koss, M.P. (1987). The sexual abuse of boys: Frequency and descriptive characteristics of childhood victimizations reported by a national sample of male post-secondary students. Kent, OH: Kent State University.
26.
Rozee, P.D., & Koss, P. (2001). Rape: A century of resistance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 295-311.
27.
Shepperd, J.A., Carroll, P., Grace, J., & Terry, M. (2002). Exploring the causes of comparative optimism. Psycholgica Belgica, 42, 65-98.
28.
Siegel, J.M., Sorensen, S.B., Golding, J.M., Burnam, M.A., & Stein, J.A. (1989). Resistance to sexual assault: Who resists and what happens? American Journal of Public Health, 79, 27-31.
29.
Sutton, S. (1998). Predicting and explaining intentions and behavior: How well are we doing? Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 28, 1317-1338.
30.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the national violence against women survey (NCJ Publication No. 183781). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
31.
Ullman, S.E. (1998). Does offender violence escalate when rape victims fight back? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 179-192.
32.
Ullman, S.E., Karabatsos, G., & Koss, M.P. (1999). Alcohol and sexual assault in a national sample of college women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 603-626.
33.
Ullman, S.E., & Knight, R.A. (1992). Fighting back: Women's resistance to rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, 31-43.
34.
Ullman, S.E., & Knight, R.A. (1993). The efficacy of women's resistance strategies in rape situations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17, 23-39.
35.
Van Acker, C.A. (2005). College women's cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to acquaintance sexual aggression (Doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University, Los Angeles). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65, 5426.
36.
Van der Kolk, B.A. (1987). The psychobiology of the trauma response: Hyperarousal, constriction and addiction to traumatic reexposure. In B. A. van der Kolk (Ed.), Psychological trauma (pp. 63-87). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
37.
Van der Kolk, B.A., Greenberg, M.S., Boyd, H., & Krystal, J. (1985). Inescapable shock, neurotransmitters and addiction to trauma: Towards a psychobiology of post traumatic stress. Biological Psychiatry, 20, 314-325.
38.
VanZile-Tamsen, C., Testa, M., & Livingston, J.A. (2005). The impact of sexual assault history and relationship context on appraisal of and responses to acquaintance sexual assault risk. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 813-832.
39.
Weinstein, N.D. (1989). Effects of personal experience on self-protective behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 31-50.
40.
Zoucha-Jenson, J.M., & Coyne, A. (1993). The effects of resistance strategies on rape. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 1633-1634.
