Violence against women (VAW) is a prevalent problem with substantial physical and mental health consequences throughout the world, and sound public policy is dependent on having good measures of VAW. This article (a) describes and contrasts criminal justice and public health approaches toward defining VAW, (b) identifies major controversies concerning measurement of VAW, (c) summarizes basic principles in identifying and measuring VAW cases, and (d) recommends changes to improve measurement of VAW. In addition to reviewing recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Workshop on Building Data Systems for Monitoring and Responding to Violence Against Women and the World Health Organization World Report on Violence and Health, the article concludes that changes are needed in the FBI Uniform Crime Reports and National Crime Victimization Survey to improve measurement of rape and sexual assault.
Ageton, S. S. (1983). Sexual assault among adolescents. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
2.
Bachman, R., & Saltzman, L. (1995). Violence against women: Estimate from the redesigned survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics..
3.
Boney-McCoy, S., & Finkelhor, D. (1996). Is youth victimization related to trauma symptoms and depression after controlling for prior symptoms and family relationships? A longitudinal, prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1406-1416.
4.
Bureau of Justice. (2002). Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics (Appendix 8). Retrieved September 10, 2003, from http://www.albany.edu/sourcebook/1995/app8.html
5.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2001). National Crime Victimization Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
6.
Campbell, J. C. (2000). Promise and perils of surveillance in addressing violence against women. Violence Against Women, 6(7), 705-727.
7.
Cantor, D., & Lynch, J. P. (2000). Self-report surveys as measures of crime and criminal victimization. Measurement and Analysis of Crime and Justice, 4, 85-138.
8.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2000). Building data systems for monitoring and responding to violence against women: Recommendations from a workshop. Retrieved September 10, 2003, from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr4911a1.htm
9.
Chapman, J. R., & Gates, M. (Eds.). (1978). The victimization of women. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
10.
DeKeseredy, W. S. (2000). Current controversies on defining nonlethal violence against women in intimate heterosexual relationships. Violence Against Women, 6(7), 728-246.
11.
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989). Multiple problem youth: Delinquency, substance use, and mental health problems. New York: Springer-Verlag.
12.
Estrich, S. (1987). Real rape. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
13.
FBI. (2001). Uniform crime reports: Crime in the United States: 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
14.
Fisher, B. S., & Cullen, F. T. (2004). Measuring the sexual victimization of women: Evolution, current controversies and future research. Measurement and Analysis of Crime and Justice, 4, 317-390.
15.
Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2000). The sexual victimization of women (NCJ 182369). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
16.
Fox, B. J. (1993). On violent men and female victims: A comment on DeKeseredy and Kelly. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 18, 320-324.
17.
Gelles, R. J., & Cornell, C. P. (1985). Intimate violence in families. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
18.
Heise, L., & Garcia-Moreno, C. (2002). Violence by intimate partners. In E. G. Krug, L. L. Dahlberg, J. A. Mercy, A. B. Zwi, & R. Lozano (Eds.), World health report on violence and health (pp. 149-181). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
19.
Jewkes, R., Sen, P., & Garcia-Moreno, C. (2002). Sexual violence. In E.G. Krug, L. L. Dahlberg, J. A. Mercy, A. B. Zwi, & R. Lozano (Eds.), World report on violence and health (p. 149). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
20.
Kilpatrick, D. G. (2002, January). Making sense of rape in America: Where do the numbers come from and what do they mean? Paper presented at the Rape Prevention and Education Program Regional Meeting (Region A), Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA.
21.
Kilpatrick, D. G. (2003, May). Rationale, methodology, results, use and recommendations. Paper presented at the Rape Prevention and Education Program, Atlanta, GA.
22.
Kilpatrick, D. G., & Acierno, R. E. (2003). Mental health needs of crime victims: Epidemiology and outcomes. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(2), 119-132.
23.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Edmunds, C. N., & Seymour, A. K. (1992). Rape in America: A report to the nation. Arlington, VA: National Victim Center & Medical University of South Carolina.
24.
Kilpatrick, D. G., & Ross, M. E. (2001). Torture and human rights violations: Public policy and the law. In T. Keane, E. Gerrity, & F. Tuma (Eds.), Mental health consequences of torture (pp. 317-331). New York: Kluwer.
25.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K. J., Acierno, R., Saunders, B. E., Resnick, H. S., & Best, C. L. (2003). Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: Results from the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 692-700.
26.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Saunders, B. E., & Smith, D. W. (2003). Youth victimization: Prevalence and implications. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.
27.
Koss, M. P. (1985). The hidden rape victim: Personality, attitudinal and situational characteristics. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 193-212.
28.
Koss, M. P. (1988). Hidden rape: Sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of college students in higher education. In A. W. Burgess (Eds.), Rape and sexual assault (pp. 3-25). New York: Garland.
29.
Koss, M. P. (1990). The women’s mental health research agenda: Violence against women. American Psychologist, 45(3), 374-380.
30.
Koss, M. P. (1996). The measurement of rape victimization in crime surveys. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23, 55-69.
31.
Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162-170.
32.
Koss, M. P., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2001). Rape and sexual assault. In T. Keane, E. Gerrity, & F. Tuma (Eds.), Mental health consequences of torture (pp. 177-193). New York: Kluwer.
33.
Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. (Eds). (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
34.
Monnier, J., Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Seals, B. (2002). The relationship between distress and resource loss following rape. Violence and Victims, 17, 85-91.
35.
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. (2003). Costs of intimate partner violence against women in the United States. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
36.
National Incident-Based Reporting System. (2001). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
37.
Rantala, R. (2000). Effects of NIBRS on crime statistics (Special Report, NCJ178890). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
38.
Resnick, H. S., Acierno, R. E., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (1997). Health impact of interpersonal violence. Section II: Medical and mental health outcomes. Behavioral Medicine, 23(2), 65-78.
39.
Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and PTSD in a representative sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(6), 984-991.
40.
Saltzman, L. (Eds.). (2000a). Building data systems for monitoring and responding to violence against women, Part I. Violence Against Women, 6(7), 699-804.
41.
Saltzman, L. (Eds.). (2000b). Building data systems for monitoring and responding to violence against women, Part II. Violence Against Women, 6(8), 811-911.
42.
Saltzman, L. E., Fanslow, J. L., McMahon, P. M., & Shelley, G. A. (2002). Intimate partner violence surveillance: Uniform definitions and recommended data elements (Version 1.0). Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Controland Prevention, National Center for Injury and Prevention and Control.
43.
Saunders, B. E. (2003). Understanding children exposed to violence: Toward an integration of overlapping fields. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(4), 356-376.
44.
Schnurr, P., & Green, B. (Eds.). (2004). Trauma and health: Physical health consequences of exposure to extreme stress. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
45.
Skogan, W. G. (1981). Issues in the measure of victimization (NCJ 74682). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
46.
Strauss, M. A. (1990a). The Conflict Tactics Scale and its critics: An evaluation and new data on validity and reliability. In M. A. Strauss & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families (pp. 49-73). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
47.
Strauss, M. A. (1990b). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scale. In M. A. Straus & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families (pp. 3-16, 29-47). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
48.
Strauss, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (1990). Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing.
49.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000, November). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NCJ183781). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
50.
Walker, E. A., Newman, E., & Koss, M. P. (2004). Cost and health care utilization associated with traumatic experiences. In P. Schnurr & B. L. Green (Eds.), Trauma and health: Physical health consequences of exposure to extreme stress (pp. 43-69). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
51.
Walker, L. E. (1979). The battered women. New York: Harper and Row.
