Latinas Experiences with Sexual Satisfaction,Pleasure and Desire: An Exploratory Qualitative Study

Abstract

While factors related to undesirable consequences of sexual activity for Latinas are well documented, Latinas’ experiences with sexual satisfaction and pleasure in the broader context of sexual health remain understudied. The objective of this study is to increase understanding around adult Latinas’ experiences with sexual satisfaction, pleasure, and desire. Participants were recruited via a combination of convenience and snowball sampling approaches and engaged in individual interviews which utilized a semi-structured approach. Twenty self-identified Latina women, ages 19–37, participated. Participants represented diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds within the Latina diaspora. Three themes (each with subthemes) emerged from this analysis: (1) Latina women value sex and sexuality, (2) specific factors make their sexual experiences more or less pleasurable, and (3) experiences of being Latina shape sexual relationships and encounters. These findings have implications for social work education, practice, and policy. Critical and strengths-based approaches encourage questioning and critiquing power dynamics in the sexual lives of Latina women and have potential to inform work with other groups.

Keywords

Latinas sexuality sexual satisfaction social work qualitative methods

Latinas/os/xs are one of the fastest growing and most heterogeneous populations in the United States (US Census Bureau, 2019). One in five women in the United States are Latina; by 2060, it is projected that Latinas will comprise one third of the female population (Noe-Bustamante & Flores, 2019; US Department of Health & Human Services [HHS], 2021). Latinas disproportionately experience negative sexual and reproductive health outcomes (CDC, 2021; Planned Parenthood, 2022), despite the increased attention to the health and wellbeing of this population in the health and social science fields. While factors related to undesirable consequences of sexual activity for Latinas have been well documented, such as unplanned pregnancy and STIs (CDC, 2022; Kim et al., 2016), Latinas’ experiences with sexual satisfaction and pleasure in the broader context of sexual health remain understudied. A quantitative, secondary data investigation found that sexual satisfaction for Latinas is correlated with meaningful and equitable relationships (Velez, 2018). However, a single item was used to measure sexual satisfaction in this study. A qualitative investigation enables further elaboration on the nuances of sexual satisfaction and has the potential to capture the complexity of this construct. The objective of this study is to increase understanding around Latinas’ experiences with sexual satisfaction, pleasure, and desire to inform sexual health promotion and anti-oppressive social work praxis.

All people have a right to experience sexual pleasure (WAS, 2019; WHO, n.d.). Yet, people can only make sexual choices autonomously when they have access to current and comprehensive sexuality education and a responsive healthcare system free from structural and interpersonal forms of oppression. Sexuality is important to women's emotional, physical, and spiritual wellbeing; social workers can have a role in promoting sexual health and advocating for women's rights (Bay-Cheng, 2010). This study draws on sex positive frameworks, understanding, and dialogue, which focus on pleasure and desire and are urgently needed in the social work discipline (Dodd, 2020). Critical and strengths-based approaches hold the potential to meaningfully inform work around Latina sexual health needs in social work education, research, and practice (Kiehme, 2016) and challenge pathologizing, racializing and essentializing notions about Latina sexualities present in much of the academic literature (García & Torres, 2009).

Literature Review

Latina Identity

The term “Latina” is broad and encompasses multiple identities. It is often a marker of someone who is considered of Latin American descent (which may include countries in the Caribbean, Central and South America). Hispanic is another term often used to identify people of Spanish-speaking countries; however, this nomenclature was created by the U.S. government to racially and ethnically categorize people for the census. Some have debated that this term excludes many from the Latinx community.

Latina is a self-referent for many Latinx identifying individuals. We focus this project on Latina and not Latinx, because we are specifically interested in understanding the experiences of womyn. We define “womyn” as anyone who self-identifies as “woman” and/or “female.” Because of the rampant stereotyping of Latinas in U.S. culture (Arrizón, 2008; García & Torres, 2009; Juárez & Kerl, 2003; Juárez et al., 2016), and especially in human service work, we felt this was an important focus for this study.

The ability for Latinas to self-identify through various self-referents is a source of strength as well as resistance. People may refer to themselves as Latina, Latinx, Hispanic, Chicana, Cubana, Puerto Riqueña, AfroLatina, Taíno, Dominicana, Boriqua, Peruana, and so on. Proximity to whiteness and being white passing creates different experiences of being Latina depending on one's racial background, and these issues emerge in sexual and romantic relationships with others (Townsend et al., 2010).

Sexuality & Social Work

Prior scholarship identifies a missing discourse in social work around sex and sexuality (Bay-Cheng, 2010, 2013; Dodd & Tolman, 2017; McCave et al., 2014; Pilgrim et al., 2021). Since issues related to sex, sexuality, and sexual health are likely to arise in social work practice regardless of the population with which one works, it is urgent that social workers be prepared to work with individuals, families, and communities to foster positive sexual health and wellbeing for all people (Pilgrim et al., 2021).

This is especially relevant for social workers working with Latinx and BIPOC populations, as they are populations which disproportionately bear the brunt of sexual health disparities (CDC, 2021). The negative reproductive health outcomes of sexual activity have been well studied and researched in Latina/o/x populations and include disproportionate rates of reproductive cancers, unintended pregnancy, and high rates of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV (Martinez et al., 2017; Planned Parenthood, 2022). However, we know very little about BIPOC, and, specifically, Latinas’ experiences with sexual satisfaction, pleasure, or desire. This topic aligns with the social work profession's focus on human rights and sexual rights and aligns with anti-oppressive and feminist approaches to social work praxis. It is important for social work to approach this subject matter from a sexual rights and anti-racist perspective in order to affirm identities of service users and to normalize all consensual forms of sexual expression and activity (Muzzey et al., 2021). As many MSW students in programs nationally pursue private practice settings and are involved in the clinical mental health field (Green et al., 2007), it is imperative for social workers to feel comfortable and confident having conversations with service users about gender, sexuality, sex and sexual health (Argüello, 2021; Guest, 2021; Turner, 2021).

Sexual Satisfaction

Numerous sexuality researchers have documented various aspects and predictors of sexual satisfaction, and most studies have focused on general adult populations (Freihart et al., 2020; Higgins et al., 2008; Higgins et al., 2011; Higgins, 2014; Mallory, 2022; Rausch & Rettenberger, 2021). Factors consistently associated with sexual satisfaction include age (younger populations report higher levels of sexual satisfaction (Carpenter et al., 2009), frequency of sexual activity and orgasm (Haavio-Mannila & Kontula, 1997; Rausch & Rettenberger, 2021), relationship status (Young et al., 1998), more permissive sexual attitudes (Haavio-Mannila & Kontula, 1997), psychological wellbeing and fewer depressive symptoms (Dundon & Rellini, 2010; Henderson et al., 2009), and sexual function or dysfunction (Dundon & Rellini, 2010).

Some evidence suggests that sexual satisfaction is related to overall life satisfaction (Stephenson & Meston, 2015). In a study of over 700 married adults, sexual satisfaction could not be compartmentalized to only sexual interactions (e.g., number of orgasms, frequency of sexual activity) but was also correlated with non-sexual relationship aspects such as love, trust, and communication (Young et al., 1998). Similarly, a study of 387 married couples found significant relationships between communication and sexual satisfaction (Litzinger & Gordon, 2005). Married women who reported high levels of sexual satisfaction also reported higher levels of relationship satisfaction (Young et al., 1998).

An online study of 406 adults who were in relationships for three years or longer, which included 203 heterosexual women, found that intimacy, emotional closeness, love, and feeling sexually desirable impacted desire and perceptions of feeling sexually satisfied (Mark et al., 2014). Similarly, a mixed-methods study including 40 participants found that women reported emotional security, emotional closeness, and, for some, orgasms, as important to feeling sexually satisfied (McClelland, 2014).

A growing body of evidence suggests that positive sexual experiences are associated with other sexual health markers. For example, a qualitative study of 20 women ages 16–18 from the United Kingdom found that young women who masturbate are more likely to report consistent contraceptive use and positive communication with their partners, in contrast with women who have never masturbated (Hogarth & Ingham, 2009). A U.S. study with a nationally representative sample of 3,800 individuals, ages 18–60, which included a predominantly White sample, found that women who reported using vibrators currently or in the past were significantly more likely to have had a gynecological exam within the past year compared to women who had never used vibrators (Hogarth & Ingham, 2009). A U.S. based study of 295 adults, 59% of whom were women, found that internal and external affirmative consent were correlated with sexual satisfaction and positive sexual experiences (Javidi et al., 2022).

The term “sexual subjectivity” is often present in studies on sexual health and has been described as a “person's experience of herself as a sexual being, who feels entitled to sexual pleasure and sexual safety, who makes active sexual choices and who has an identity as a sexual being” (Tolman, 2002, as cited in Mann, 2016, p. 331). In a longitudinal study of adolescent girls in the United States, researchers found that expectations of pleasure and sexual self-efficacy predicted young adult well-being in three distinct domains: sexual, physical, and mental health (Cheng et al., 2014). Importantly, youth with higher levels of reported self-efficacy were more likely to consistently use condoms during heterosexual sexual activity and more likely to avoid unwanted pregnancy (Cheng et al., 2014). This study addressed policy efforts to expand comprehensive sexual education that includes a focus on sexual pleasure and desire.

Latina Sexuality & Sexual Satisfaction

Latina representation in all of these studies is very small, if at all. In one study that included 769 women ages 18–70, 5.5% of the sample identified as Latina, and researchers found that high levels of arousal were not necessary to have a positive sexual experience; instead, sexual satisfaction was associated with healthy relationships and good communication between partners (Leavitt et al., 2019). The only study that we found that explicitly focuses on a sample of Latina women and sexual satisfaction was a quantitative study conducted in Chilé, which included 3,163 women ages 18–69 and a single item screener for sexual satisfaction (Barrientos & Páez, 2006). Researchers found that high educational attainment, marital status, and high socioeconomic status were positively associated with sexual satisfaction. This study, like other studies covered in this review (Litzinger & Gordon, 2005; Mark et al., 2014; McClelland, 2014; Young & Luquis, 1998), also found that equity, love, and communication were positively associated with sexual satisfaction.

There is little research that focuses on queer and/or LGBTQIA + Latinas and sexual satisfaction, pleasure, or desire. Thus, this has been identified as an area in need of research (García & Torres, 2009). There is research to support that sexual identity is important to understanding sexual desire (Mark et al., 2018). Research that centers LGBTQIA + populations is often risk focused and does not attend to sexual pleasure, satisfaction, or desire (Mark et al., 2018). Bisexual women report higher levels of sexual desire than their heterosexual peers (Persson et al., 2016). A mixed-methods study that included 73 adult heterosexual and queer women found that queer participants were more comfortable with masturbation than their heterosexual peers (Goldey et al., 2016). In a study including 65 queer participants, lack of sex and/or sexual satisfaction was one of four primary reasons why queer couples broke up or divorced their partners (Scott et al., 2021). A quantitative study that included 318 female participants who identified as lesbian, queer, or bisexual found a positive relationship between spiritual wellness and sexual satisfaction, suggesting that connectedness and trust contribute to queer women's perceptions of being sexually satisfied (Smith & Home, 2008).

Overall, the literature reviewed here identifies several factors related to sexual satisfaction. Specifically, safety, communication, consent, trust, and respect are associated with positive sexual experiences. To our knowledge, there is no qualitative study to date which specifically asks adult Latinas to reflect on their experiences with sexual satisfaction, pleasure and desire in the context of sex and sexual relationships.

Method

We aimed to understand how Latinas understand their sexuality, sexual health, and what they value in sexual encounters and relationships. The research question driving this study was, “What are the experiences of Latinas with sexual satisfaction, pleasure, and desire?” We are not trying to identify a singular experience, rather, we wanted to hear from Latinas in their own words about what, for them, leads to pleasurable sexual experiences. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Vermont.

Researcher Positionality

There are four members of our research team: the first author who is a social work faculty member with experience teaching sex and sexuality content, the second author has an MSW and is a faculty member in pediatrics, the third author is also a social work faculty member and practitioner, with expertise teaching sex and sexuality content at the undergraduate and graduate level, and our fourth member is a Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) student who worked on this project as a research assistant. Two of us were involved in data collection and analysis; our two other members joined after data collection was completed to assist with analysis. The two of us who worked on data collection did not choose who would interview which participant based off of a participant's racial and/or ethnic identity; the logistics associated with scheduling and availability of researcher and participant determined who would interview which person.

Three of us identify as heterosexual Latina cis women, and we are all fluent in Spanish. One of us identifies as white, Jewish, queer cis man and was included in this project because of his teaching and practice experience regarding sex and sexualities, as well as expertise with qualitative methods. All authors are social workers. As Latina identifying women, three of us are deeply connected to the community we are learning from and although our experiences as Latinas residing in the United States are very different from one another, and our cultural and ethnic backgrounds are distinct, we also share many cultural and professional similarities. As Latina cis women, we represent different ethnicities (the first author identifies as second-generation Spanish and Mexican, the second as first-generation Argentinian, the fourth author as first-generation Ecuadorian). Our Latina cultures are distinct and similar in various ways, and we all have high educational attainment.

As the researchers involved in recruitment of participants and in data collection, we were acutely aware of our own positionalities throughout the process, from how we engaged with participants to how we approached analysis and meaning making from our findings. As insiders (Latina, cis females), and outsiders to the project, we tried to approach this study from a trauma-informed, anti-oppressive, anti-colonial perspective. This means that we began by honoring and centering the experience of each participant and offering kindness when challenging subject material around experiences with racism in sexual encounters and/or discussing unwanted and nonconsensual experiences. We acknowledged the complexity of the term Latina, and that experiences with racism and microaggressions in sexual encounters and relationships impacts folx in distinct ways. We acknowledged the everyday experience of racism in the lives of Latinas, and how, as white-passing Latinas, we have very different experiences compared to our sisters with darker skin. As Latina researchers, our individual identities and connections to and understandings of colonialism, whiteness, racism, and colorism are varied.

Sample Recruitment

Participants were recruited via a mix of convenience and snowball sampling approaches. Fliers describing the study were posted throughout the city, university, and on various social media sites. Fliers were posted in local grocery stores, coffee shops and in and around the local university. Fliers were posted and shared via university social media accounts. In some cases, participants shared the study information with others who might be interested, and some participants reached out directly to the first author to schedule interviews. Participants were compensated with a $25 gift card. Eligibility criteria included participants over the age of 18, who identified as Latina and women. Participants were offered electronic copies of the consent form for their records. Each participant who expressed interest met eligibility criteria and was included in this study. No participant withdrew from this study. All interviews were mostly conducted in English, with some Spanglish as well. Although both researchers conducting interviews are bilingual in English and Spanish, and prepared to conduct interviews in Spanish, if necessary (as study documents had all been translated to Spanish at the request of the IRB), no participant requested this preference.

In-Depth Interviews

Interviews for this exploratory, qualitative study were conducted from August 2019 to February 2021. In each interview, participants completed a brief demographic form with data such as age, gender identity, sexual orientation, dis/ability status, parenting status, employment, and educational attainment.

Interviews lasted between 45 min and 1 h. During the beginning of this study, interviews were conducted in person in a small, predominantly white city in the Northeast. Interviews were conducted in private in the first author's office. However, with the global impact of COVID-19, over half of the interviews were conducted remotely via Zoom with video and audio, with IRB approval. Both participants and researchers made sure that interviews were conducted in private, and we are aware of no issues with privacy concerns as a result of pivoting to remote interviewing.

A study flier and information sheet (which served as the consent form) was shared with interested participants and explicitly stated that the purpose of this research study was to explore Latina women's experiences with sexual satisfaction, pleasure, and desire. Informed consent was provided prior to starting the interview and consent was obtained from each individual participant to audio record interviews. Given the sensitive nature of the project, prior to the interviews we made clear that participants were welcome to pass on answering any question and could stop the interview at any time, although no participant chose to stop the interview. As researchers, we made sure to make time at the beginning and end of the interview should participants have questions about data management, confidentiality of their identity and data, as well as to de-brief if needed.

As we planned and conducted interviews, we were cognizant of the extremely high prevalence rates of sexual violence nationally and globally, and the higher prevalence experienced by Latinas compared to white women (Gonzalez et al., 2020). We made no attempts to minimize or disregard this very real and important component to the nature of sexual relations in the globalized world in which we find ourselves. As researchers, we approached data collection and analysis with the acknowledgement and reverence for the fact that it was likely that the majority of participants had personal experiences with sexual assault, violence, and/or harassment. We acknowledged this in our informed consent discussion and process with all participants. We also clearly explained that our study's focus and purpose was to explore and better understand what is typically considered the “positive” aspects of sexual activity and relationships, and it was not on sexual violence.

Data Analysis

All audio recordings were transcribed using rev.com and transcripts were uploaded to NVivo 20 for analysis. We conducted a thematic analysis of this data (Braun & Clarke, 2012; Terry et al., 2017). We each read and coded all interviews and met several times to discuss codes, identify themes, and formulate findings. We took a deductive approach to data analysis, as our coding process was informed by our literature review. We did not reach data saturation, however, the lack of continued funds for data collection required us to stop before we were able to do so.

Findings

Sample Description

Twenty adult participants were included in this study; the average age was 26, with ages ranging from 19 to 39. Although anyone identifying as Latina and female was invited to participate, including transwomen and vulva owners, only cisgender women responded to recruitment efforts and thus all participants identified as cisgender women. In terms of their racial/ethnic identity, participants self-identified in the following ways (some participants identified in multiple ways): Latina, Hispanic, Puerto Rican, Mexican, Jewish, White, Asian, Latinx, Chinese, Columbian, Indigenous, Afro-Latina, Dominican American, Chilean, Black, Ecuadorian, Mexican-American, Mexicana and Chicana. Participants identified as heterosexual (n = 12), pansexual (n = 3), bisexual (n = 3), queer (n = 1) and lesbian (n = 1). Participants were currently working on their bachelor's degrees (n = 11), had bachelor's degrees (n = 5), or had master's degrees or higher (n = 4). All participants were either employed full time or part time (n = 18) or were full-time students (n = 2). Only one participant identified as living with a dis/ability and only one participant identified as a parent/caregiver. Participants resided in Vermont, New York, Arizona, Texas, and California.

Qualitative Results

Three overarching themes emerged in the analysis of this data: (1) Latina women value sex and sexuality in their lives, (2) specific factors make their sexual experiences more or less pleasurable, and (3) experiences of being “Latina” shape sexual relationships and encounters. Results are presented here as themes and subthemes. Quotes used to illustrate these themes represent all 20 participants at least once.

Latina Women Value Sex and Sexuality in Their Lives

Sex and sexual desire are “normal” and feel good. Participants talked at length about the value of sex and sexuality in their lives. Some began the conversation by identifying sex and sexual desire as completely normal, as one participant stated, “Just like you pee, you poop, you menstruate, those are normal things, and you get horny, absolutely normal” [Latina, heterosexual, age 35], with most participants stating that sex is “natural” or “normal.” Another participant shared that

I’m constantly talking about sex…I think it's a real topic and I feel like it is not spoken about enough. And I feel like I’m a sexual being in the sense that I want to make it something that's not necessarily taboo, and I try to advocate for it, and I try to talk about it, and I try to make it just a normal thing, because I really think it's a normal thing [Latina, Hispanic, pansexual, age 20].

One participant shared that sex, “should just be joyful. It should be something I want to do that feels good for me, feels good for the other person” [Latina, Puerto Rican, pansexual, age 37].

Sex is an emotional experience where communication and respect are extremely important. Despite most participants sharing that sex is “normal,” many also shared that sex is not only a physical experience but deeply intertwined with the emotional. One person shared, “I believe that sex when you have it, that there are certain emotions and things that are transferred when you are intimate with someone” [Hispanic, Latina, Black, African American, heterosexual, age 23]. Participants shared that an emotional connection is often necessary to consider a sexual experience as pleasurable. One participant stated, “that's the positive for me, the emotional connection, if it were not there, I don't think it would be a positive experience, even if I get to climax” [Mexicana, heterosexual, age 39].

Participants shared that an emotional sexual experience is impacted by perceived good communication, respect, and trust with a partner. One person noted:

Honestly, a lot of it [sexual satisfaction] has to do with my mental space. So as long as I feel safe and I feel heard, then I’m able to have a good exchange as a person. If I just feel uncomfortable or like my feelings don't matter, whether internal or physical, it's never going to be a good experience regardless. You can hit all the right points and do everything correctly, but if that communication isn't there, it's not good for me [Puerto Rican-American, pansexual, age 24].

Strong communication and respect can create the conditions for positive sexual experiences and are connected to a sense of intimacy in sexual encounters that can make an experience pleasurable, as noted by a participant, “I value connections. I’m not one to have a relationship unless I can trust that person. And I don't mean a serious relationship. I do mean just purely sexual. So honestly, communication, trust and just respect are important” [Mexicana, heterosexual, age 39]. Another participant shared a similar sentiment:

I like someone that I can talk to or communicate, someone that I can be open with. I feel like that's really important for a sexual relationship. Because if you’re not on the same page, then it's like something can happen and then your experience is completely ruined for that night. So open communication, even if it's just … Even it's just straightforward [Chilean, Puerto Rican, bisexual, age 21].

Orgasms and feeling sexually satisfied are not the same thing. All participants shared about their experiences of orgasming and its relationship to feelings of sexual satisfaction. Although orgasms were identified as pleasurable experiences, as one person shared, they weren't the only factor that needed to be present for a pleasurable sexual experience. As one person noted, “I think that orgasms are a pleasurable experience, but it's not the only experience that is pleasurable out of sex, if that makes sense at all” [Latina, heterosexual, age 20]. Most participants believed that an experience can feel sexually satisfying despite the absence of orgasm and vice versa, as evidenced by one person who shared that:

I think some people have an idea in their head that in order for you to have had good sex, like a good sex session, you have to orgasm. I don't think that's necessarily true. You don't always, I mean, maybe for men, because they’re different. But as a woman I feel like you don't, especially if it's like you don't go the full way, you just maybe are doing other things. Like you don't have to finish for it to be a good time [Latina, Mexican, Jewish, heterosexual, age 37]

Masturbation. Participants shared their experiences with masturbation and its connection to sexual satisfaction, and sex with partners. Masturbation was quite common amongst all participants, with only one person sharing that they don't masturbate. Masturbation was an activity that participants stated they engaged in regularly, in part because, as one person noted, “no one can pleasure you like yourself” [Hispanic, white, heterosexual, age 21]. This was a sentiment echoed by others, as another participant shared that, “I’m like, ‘I know my body better than anyone.’ So I feel like if anything, I give myself the best satisfaction [Latina, Hispanic, Latinx, bisexual, age 23].

Masturbation was also regarded as a form of self-love and a means to feel sexually satisfied with oneself, as one participant shared that:

I also think of sexual satisfaction is being able to do that for yourself. I think when it comes to masturbation, I think of sexual satisfaction in that way as well, that you should be able to speak to your body, listen to your body, know what your body wants and needs. So yes, communication is good within a romantic or sexual relationship with somebody else, but it's also important for yourself too [Afro-Latinx, Dominican, African American, queer, age 19].

Masturbation is a form of self-love and is itself self-empowering:

I think a positive experience was maybe three or four years ago of being able to just come immediately through the toys and knowing myself. I feel like it was liberating to be like, “Wow, I did this for myself and this is what works for me” [Mexican-American, Chicana, lesbian, age 24].

Participants indicated that a relationship exists between masturbation and experiencing pleasure in sexual interactions with others. Participants shared sentiments that masturbation allowed for them to self-explore what sensations were pleasurable, and thus created the opportunity to communicate these things in sexual interactions with others, to enhance the experience of pleasure in a sexual interaction. For example, one participant shared:

And it turned out to be normal, so I’ve just started figuring out ways that make me feel comfortable with myself, learning about my body and stuff. And I really enjoy that because then I can communicate that to my partner and I can be like, “I like this part, when you touch here. I know I like it when I do it” [Latina, heterosexual, age 21].

Factors That Impact Sexual Satisfaction and Pleasurable Experiences

Lack of unwanted physical aggressiveness. Participants identified many factors that impact sexual satisfaction and pleasurable experiences. When asked to elaborate and discuss pleasurable and sexually satisfying experiences, participants noted freedom from coercion and/or aggressiveness as one of the most important factors in engaging in a sexually pleasurable experience with another person. For example, one person stated, “When they’re not forceful with me. I don't like aggressiveness. It scares me” [Latina, Hispanic, pansexual, age 20]. Another participant shared that a turn off is when:

…you’re too aggressive for no reason. Don't rub my clit off. It's not going anywhere. I don't like that. Or if I tell you something and you ignore me, if I tell you, “Oh, that's hurting,” and you just keep going, thinking I like it, I’m like, “No, I just told you that hurts me, so why are you still doing it?” [Ecuadorian, heterosexual, age 20].

This was echoed by another participant who stated, “I don't like physical aggressiveness. A lot of times, like if oral is happening, I’ve noted, they’ll just grab my head. And I don't like to be touched in that sense” [Hispanic, Latina, Puerto Rican, heterosexual, age 23].

Being present in the moment. Participants shared that being mentally, physically, and emotionally present in the moment during a sexual encounter positively impacts perceptions of feeling sexually satisfied and having a pleasurable sexual experience. Some described this as “Just touching, just getting lost in the moment” [Afro-Latina, Dominican American, bisexual, age 19]. Another participant stated:

It is a lot of mental work, so before, during sex, I would just be like… just because I just think a lot. I’d just be thinking, “Oh, I have homework due tomorrow.” I’d always be distracted. So now I’ve been working more on being more focused during sex or thinking about what I’m doing at the moment, and that actually helps a lot with reaching that climax point [Hispanic, white, heterosexual, age 21].

Another participant stated a similar sentiment about focusing and being present on the moment:

It's just I think for me it's how much I can tell my brain to shut up, because sometimes it's like there's too many things that I’m thinking about even if I’m the person who initiated…then if I have too much anxiety and I’m thinking about other things, and sometimes I find myself not being able to like focus…. I feel like I have to remind myself to constantly focus on what I am doing, so that I don't start to wander, because then I feel like I’m not paying attention to what's happening [Latina, Mexican, Jewish, heterosexual, age 37].

Consent is critical. Most participants spoke at length about the importance of consent, and some shared strategies they use for navigating consent in sexual encounters. Participants also shared how navigating consent is a process that one learns and practices over time, as one person noted:

In previous relationships, if I told them to stop, they’ll stop. But they’ll be like, “Oh, what's wrong?” still trying to get into it. I used to just give in and just be like, okay, whatever. And now it's more like, I stand my ground with consent. “I don't want to do this right now. I don't want to.” But before, I used to be very weak with that. Nobody really asks you, “Oh, do you want to have sex?” It's never like that. It just happens. And then if we’re both into it, we do it. If not, then no. But I have had guys who are more persistent [Latina, heterosexual, age 20].

This sentiment was shared by another participant who noted how consent is not necessarily easy to implement in practice:

I used to be very, whatever the guy wants, and now I’m more like, oh, no, it's what I want too because it's something we’re doing together. I’m like, “No, bro. No is no. Even if you’re my boyfriend or husband, it's no.” I’m still figuring that out, to be honest [Latina, heterosexual, age 23].

Reciprocity in a sexual encounter is important and sexy. Participants appreciated the give and take of a sexual encounter and want it to feel balanced in that they provide pleasure but also expect to receive it. In other words, a reciprocal balanced sexual encounter was considered pleasurable, where both partners receive and give pleasure, “and reciprocity, man. I scratch your back. You scratch mine” [Afro-Latina, Dominican American, bisexual, age 19]. Another participant elaborated on this idea a bit further by stating, “when I look at sexual satisfaction, it's not just how I am satisfied. It's how the other person is satisfied too” [Latina, Hispanic, pansexual, age 20]. One participant stated that, “so sexual satisfaction is something that you are looking for personally, but also something that you can provide for another person” [Ecuadorian, heterosexual, age 20], which was echoed by another participant who stated that, “I find satisfaction in knowing that we are looking for ways to please one another” [Latina, pansexual, age 39].

Safe Sex, STI prevention, and birth control are priorities and important to having a pleasurable sexual encounter. Many participants shared the sentiment that, “I definitely value safe sex. I would never knowingly engage in sex that isn't safe” [Indigenous Latina, heterosexual, age 21] and that, “safe sex is the best sex” [Chilean, Puerto Rican, bisexual, age 21]. In response to being asked about what makes for a pleasurable sexual experience, one participant offered that, “birth control definitely made the experience a little bit more pleasurable. Just knowing that you are protected. It's just like another protection that you could use…It's always a nice, nice thing to be on” [Hispanic, white, heterosexual, age 21].

Experiences of Being Latina Shape Sexual Relationships and Encounters

Generational experience with sexual assault impacts the present. Despite the fact that the interview guide and questions focused on sexual satisfaction, pleasure, and desire and participants were not asked about sexual assault or violence, the topic inevitably emerged. This topic emerged in response to being asked about sexual satisfaction, where one participant shared that:

I read a study somewhere where it's like Hispanic and Black women are more likely to be sexually assaulted in their younger years than other races, or groups of women. And I was one of those people that was, so it affects it [sexual satisfaction] [Hispanic, Latina, Black, African American, heterosexual, age 23].

It also emerged when participants discussed how they learned about sex and sexuality, as some offered to discuss their family history, “My mom suffered from sexual assault when she was young” [Latina, heterosexual, age 35]. Another participant shared that:

I’ve heard that they [aunts] had experiences of sexual assault, and that has impacted their sexual life forever…the impact led for them to raise some of my cousins with these ideas of sex being dirty, or sex being wrong, or you don't need to have sex [Latina, Puerto Rican, pansexual, age 37].

Latinas think critically about messages about sex and sexuality from home environment despite not agreeing with them. Participants shared many stories about stereotypical gender roles they were exposed to as a result of being raised and exposed to different Latina cultures. As one person noted, “I think like my background is still very much stuck in the past about traditional gender roles and stereotypes” [Columbian, Latina, heterosexual, age 24]. One participant discussed the stereotype that “Hispanic” families, in this case meaning Latinx families as well, are “traditional” in that the idea about sex being something women should wait until marriage for is part of a moral and social code:

So I could go based off my identity, my Hispanic identity, my Latina identity, and be like, “Oh, yeah, I don't want to have sex until I’m married. I don't want to be so sexually open,” because my family's kind of more traditional in that sense [Latina, heterosexual, age 23].

Many participants discussed being parented differently than their brothers, for example:

My mom would say, “if you do this [sex], you’re never going to find the right man, and you’re going to go to hell, and your body's going to be ruined forever.” But then in the same breath they’d tell all my brothers, “Oh, you’re going to have so many girlfriends” [Puerto Rican-American, pansexual, age 37].

That was echoed by another participant who shared that:

Definitely different genders. I feel like my friends were all getting the same messages from home. It was like, “We are not to have sex. And it's really bad repercussions for us if we do.” But I have three brothers, three older brothers, and they never got any of those messages. It was only for me. And I was treated very differently from my brothers [Latina, heterosexual, age 35].

Alongside receiving different messages about sex and sexuality because of being female, there was also the message that being sexual also means being promiscuous, and that promiscuity is something bad or shameful, as one person noted:

We were told that it's [sex] a sin and you’re going to become a prostitute if you have sex, you’re a whore, and if you ever have sex, you’re going to have sex with a lot of men and your reputation is going to go to hell [Columbian, Latina, heterosexual, age 24].

Some participants shared that overall, they felt that sexism is a part of Latinx culture, as evidenced when a participant shared that, “my family is a prototypical Latino family, machos, sexists, good people, but definitely sexist” [Latina, heterosexual, age 35]. Another participant likened sexism in Latin America to racism in the United States: “I think it's very ingrained. It's like racism in the United States, sexism in Peru. That's how I see it” [Latina, heterosexual, age 37].

Participants who identified as queer, bisexual, and pansexual discussed challenges with their sexual orientation and Latinx culture. One person stated, “but I know that because of my culture, my mom personally doesn't like the fact that I like females” [Latina, Latinx, Hispanic, bisexual, age 23], while another participant who discussed diverging from their family of origin's perspectives on relationships that aren't heterosexual: “My family didn't really believe in anything other than heterosexuality for a while, too, and then like, I’m breaking that also” [Latina, Hispanic, pansexual, age 20]. Another participant shared the challenges she faced with her mom about her sexual orientation and stated that she

Went to Pride this summer when I went back home to New York City. And my mom was like, “Why are you going? You’re straight,” and I was like, “No, I’ve told you consistently that I’m not, but you just choose to ignore it” [Mexican American, Chicana, lesbian, age 24].

Experiences of being fetishized due to Latina ethnicity are common. When asked about the relationship between participants’ Latina identities and their sexuality, many participants discussed the topics of fetishization of Latinas and stereotypes of Latina sexuality. One person noted, “I think in American culture, even though I don't consider it my culture, people who look like me, like Latinx people, a lot of times are fetishized” [Columbian, Latina, heterosexual, age 24]. Participants discussed stereotypes of Latina sexuality and that

It's kind of fetishized physically. I don't present as a Latina, but it's still fetishized. So, if a person's like, “Oh, you’re a Puerto Rican. That must mean you’re real freaky or you’re real fun.” And it's just like, “You don't really know that, but okay.” So sometimes it's exciting, but most of the time I just feel objectified [Puerto Rican-American, pansexual, age 24].

Specifically, the issue of body type and fetishization emerged, and that, “As a Latina, I feel like a lot of us sometimes are expected to have a certain type of body type” [Indigenous Latina, heterosexual, age 21]. Another participant echoed this sentiment and shared that with this stereotype comes certain expectations, and that there is a pressure imposed as a result which ultimately negatively impacts a sexual encounter:

Guys are like, “Oh, Latinas, they have a big butt and titties and they do certain things in bed.” According to Pornhub, Latinas do all this and stuff in bed. I’m just like, “Do I have to do that?” Before, I used to be like, “Do I have to do all of that? Are you expecting that from me? Because you’re getting what you’re getting.” Yeah, that kind of made me insecure before. “Oh, he doesn't think I have a fat ass. What if he's not turned on or something? [Latina, pansexual, age 21].

Another participant shared that they experienced this type of objectification as a turn off:

I hate when they say, “I’ve never been with a Latina woman before”, a lot of people say that or call me “mami” off the bat, and they’ll say, “Spanish girls have the best pussy,” and it's just a turn off [Latina, Hispanic, pansexual, age 20].

Despite experiences with fetishization, Latinas are proud and optimistic about change. Participants shared that despite these stereotypes, they feel immense pride being Latina, a sentiment communicated by all participants. Some participants shared that they felt that attitudes and messages about sex and sexuality are changing within the Latinx diaspora and were hopeful that future generations of Latinas might not have to manage the pressure of gender roles, gender inequity, and fetishization. One participant shared that:

Having so much pride in it [being Latina] and being sexual, I would just say have pride in those things. They’re great things and I feel like you can go anywhere and people might look at you as Latina, but hopefully they don't look at you as a sexual Latina. They just look at you as a person [Hispanic, Latina, Puerto-Rican, heterosexual, age 23].

Another participant mirrored that response when she stated, “I think there is a new wave, a new generation of younger people in the Latinx community that are trying to break that barrier and normalize sexuality and women. So, that's a good thing” [Indigenous Latina, heterosexual, age 21]. In general, there was a sentiment of hope for future generations: “I hope that they’re able to just go through the world and not having to worry about people cat-calling them or them being looked at just for sex” [Hispanic, Latina, Puerto Rican, heterosexual, age 21]. Finally, a participant discussed reclaiming sexuality and power, and the global gender inequities that drive a need for this reclamation of sex as “an expression of power, and power to the females…societies have been bent on taking power from females for generations” [Latina, Asian, Latinx, Mexican, Jewish, Chinese, heterosexual, age 37].

Discussion

Many of our findings corroborate what is already known in the sexual satisfaction literature about sex being an emotional experience, where respect and communication are factors that when present help people experience pleasure regardless of whether someone is always experiencing an orgasm (Barrientos & Páez, 2006; Litzinger & Gordon, 2005;Mark et al., 2014; McClelland, 2014; Young & Luquis, 1998). Our findings related to masturbation mirror other studies that have found that masturbation can lead to pleasurable and sexually satisfying sexual encounters with others (Hogarth & Ingham, 2009). Latinas in this sample also valued reciprocal sexual experiences and encounters, and often noted that being able to provide pleasure to someone else is in itself sexually satisfying. It is unsurprising that unwanted aggression from a partner leads to an unpleasurable sexual experience, as does being with someone who does not respect boundaries.

Heteronormative gender roles and beliefs that sex is “dirty” and/or shameful remain pervasive in our society and global world (Irvine, 2018; Keene, 2021; Kowalski & Scheitle, 2020; van Anders et al., 2022). These are ideas to which most of us who are raised in the West are exposed. It makes sense that Latinas are also exposed to these messages, and we don't necessary understand the manifestation of these ideas as specific to Latina culture, but more a representation of the influence of patriarchy and colonialism on all of us. The lasting impact of sexual violence and historical legacies of rape and violence can potentially explain why Latinas reported receiving messages to abstain or “stay away” from sexual encounters. Latinas in this study also reported working hard by way of community to resist these norms around sex through sexual self-efficacy and love. We posit that it is not Latinx culture but sexual violence which is to blame for feelings of shame or sex being dirty. The prevalence of sexual violence in Latinx communities, much like other populations, continues to wield a destructive force on the sexual lives of Latinas.

Latinas also shared the nuanced ways in which they think critically about their backgrounds and ethnicities as they relate to their sex lives and being sexual. Latinas shared insights about their relationship with their racial and ethnic identities, conveying a sense of pride despite thinking critically about gender inequity and patriarchy which impacts even the most intimate aspects of women's lives.

Strengths, Limitations, & Suggestions for Future Research

This study had a number of strengths, including the fact that all interviews were conducted by the PI or an RA who both identify as Latina, which likely encouraged a trusting environment for the research interviews. The COVID-19 pandemic, together with lockdowns and social isolation measures, emerged during data collection and required a change to the interview protocol in that remaining interviews were conducted remotely.

There were also a number of limitations. Data saturation was not reached due to limited resources. This group of participants had high levels of educational attainment, so it is difficult to know if our results would have been similar with a different group of Latina women. It is also likely that participants who volunteered were already comfortable having conversations with others about sex and sexuality. Similarly, queer representation was low, and future studies should focus on the unique needs of LGBTQIA + Latinx individuals and populations.

More research is needed on nearly every aspect of this topic and with other populations. Future research with Latinx groups, as well as other ethnic and racial groups, must always consider the heterogeneity present within this large ethnic group. Additionally, the impact of colorism and racism faced by darker skinned and Black and Afro-Latina identifying people must be considered as part of anti-racist and feminist scholarship. To this point, an intersectional research approach that focuses on the intersection of identities in relation to sexual pleasure, desire, and sexual satisfaction is needed with all populations social work serves.

Implications

This study has implications for social work education, research, and practice. From an educational standpoint, McCave and colleagues (2014) explain that “by recognizing sexuality as an integral part of social work education and practice, we can replace patterns of paternalism with strengths-based models of care more consistent with our code of ethics and evidence-based practice” (p. 414). This can be done simply by starting at the basics and not assuming that students have a baseline knowledge of sex, reproduction, anatomy, consent, sexuality, and so on. We can work to normalize discussion of these topics within the social work classroom and in the curriculum. Electives, such as Human Behavior in the Social Environment (HBSE), policy and research courses are prime areas for integration of this topic into curriculum; the application of sexuality content specifically into HBSE is already being explored, recognized, and valued (Dodd & Katz, 2020). Social work programs should consider offering a specific course in human sexuality, if they do not already do so. Knowing the subpar sex education many people receive in the United States, we cannot assume that students enter our classrooms with a baseline knowledge of these topics. As in nearly every topic area covered in the social work classroom, we should continue to encourage critical reflection on the topics of sex, sexuality, gender and sexual orientation. We should always consider and acknowledge the historical context which inevitably impacts the present. With regards to this topic of Latinas, sex, and sexuality, a legacy of colonialism permeates Latin American history, and thus current ideas expressed by participants of reclaiming their sexual power and agency can be understood as a resistance to violent colonialist forces on an entire group of people.

Lastly, these findings can impact practice by encouraging social work professionals to normalize and de-stigmatize conversations with service users about sex and sexuality. These are extremely important aspects of identity that are often overlooked in the helping relationship, but impact relationships, health, parenting, employment, and wellbeing of people served by social workers. Social workers are well trained to understand and intervene in situations of sexual violence, but that cannot be the only context and setting in which social workers are trained to address issues of sexuality, sexual health, sexual orientation, and sexual identity. These findings also inform our understanding of resilience and empowerment present in Latina communities, which are strengths to leverage in practice. However, since this sample did have high educational attainment, we must consider if college-educated women are more empowered in this regard. Expanding educational access in all domains should be prioritized. We also ponder, how do we take these lessons to groups who do not come into contact with social workers? From a macro practice perspective, social work as a profession needs to continue to advocate and organize around policies such as comprehensive sexual education, access to birth control and health insurance, as well as other reproductive justice issues such as access to safe and legal abortions (Beddoe et al., 2020).

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the University of Vermont (grant number Social Work Department).

ORCID iD

Christine Marie Velez

Author Biographies

Christine Marie Velez, is an assistant professor in Social Work. Her research area is in racial justice, sexuality, environmental justice and health equity.

Maria Mercedes Ávila, is an associate professor in Pediatrics. Her research area is in health equity for underrepresented and marginalized communities, racial justice, and disabilities.

Jared Israel Best, is an assistant professor in Social Work. His research area is with disenfranchised youth, juvenile justice and foster youth.

Jaylyn Chalco, has her Bachelor's degree in Social Work and currently works as a housing specialist in the Greater New York City Area.

Appendix A

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