Although economic disparities persist between men and women, women's issues in the context of U.S. local economic development planning have received relatively little attention by scholars and practicing planners. Market forces and existing local economic development practices can reduce, but not eliminate, these disparities in economic status. Local interventions are needed to effect greater economic equality between the sexes, particularly in light of changes in national policy and the devolution of spending priorities from the federal government to states and localities.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abrahamson, Mark
, and Lee Sigelman. 1987. Occupational sex segregation in metropolitan areas. American Sociological Review52: 588-597.
2.
Aiger, Dennis J.
, and Glen C. Cain. 1977. Statistical theories of discrimination in labor markets. Industrial and Labor Relations30, 2: 175-187.
3.
Aldrich, Mark
, and Robert Buchele. 1986. The economics of comparable worth. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
4.
Amott, Teresa L.1990. Black women and AFDC: Making entitlement out of necessity. In Women, the state and welfare, Linda Gordon, ed. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
5.
Ashraf, Javed
. 1996. Is gender pay discrimination on the wage? Evidence from panel data, 1968-1989. Industrial and Labor Relations Review49, 3: 537-546.
6.
Auerbach, Judith
. 1988. In the business of child care. Employer initiatives and working women. New York: Praeger.
7.
Balkin, Steven
. 1989. Self-employmentfor low-income people. New York: Praeger.
8.
Bane, Mary Jo
. 1997. Welfare as we might know it. American Prospect30: 47-53.
9.
Bane, Mary Jo
1985. The politics and policies of the feminization of poverty. Paper presented at the Colloquium on the Changing Situation of Black Americans and Women: Roots and Reverberations in U.S. Social Politics since the 1960s, April 26-27, University of Chicago.
10.
Bartik, Timothy J.1991. Who benefits from state and local economic development policies?Kalamazoo, MI: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.
11.
Baugher, Eleanor
, and Leatha Lamison-White. 1996. Poverty in the United States: 1995. Current Population Reports. Series P60-194. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
12.
Beauregard, Robert A.1989. Local politics and the employment relation: Construction jobs in Philadelphia. In Economic restructuring and political response. Vol. 34. Robert A. Beauregard, ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
13.
Beauregard, Robert A.1987. Resident hiring preference ordinances: A comparative analysis. Economic Development Quarterly1, 2: 124-135.
14.
Becker, Gary S.1985. Human capital, effort, and the sexual division of labor. Journal of Labor Economics 3, 1 (2): S33-S58.
15.
Belenky, Mary
, Blythe Clinchy, Nancy Goldberger, and Jill Tarule. 1986. Women's ways of knowing: The development of self, voice, and mind. New York: Basic Books.
16.
Beller, Andrea H.1985. Changes in the sex composition of U.S. occupations, 1960-1981. Journal of Human Resources20, 2: 235-250.
17.
Berman, Michael Aaron
. 1996. The transportation effects of neo-traditional development. Journal of Planning Literature10, 4: 347-363.
18.
Bernhardt, Annette
, Martina Morris, and Mark S. Handcock. 1995. Women's gains or men's losses? A closer look at the shrinking gender gap in earnings. American Journal of Sociology101, 2: 302-328.
19.
Bielby, William T.
, and James N. Baron. 1984. A woman's place is with other women: Sex segregation within organizations. In Sex segregation in the workplace: Trends, explanations, remedies. Barbara F. Reskin, ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
20.
Bielby, William T.
, and Denise D. Bielby. 1992. I will follow him: Family ties, gender-role beliefs, and reluctance to relocate for a better job. American Journal of Sociology97, 5: 1241-1267.
21.
Blakely, Edward J.1994. Planning local economic development: Theory and practice. 2d ed.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
22.
Blumenberg, Evelyn. 1995. Gender politics, local labor markets, and women's economic status: The case of comparable worth. Ph.D. diss., Department of Urban Planning, University of California, Los Angeles.
23.
Cain, Glen G.1996. The economic analysis of labor market discrimination: A survey. In Handbook of labor economics. Vol. 1. Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard, eds. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
24.
Christoforidis, Alexander
. 1994. New alternatives to the suburb: Neotraditional developments. Journal of Planning Literature8, 4: 429-440.
25.
Clavel, Pierre
, and Wim Wiewel, eds. 1991. Harold Washington and the neighborhoods: Progressive city government in Chicago, 1983-1987. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
26.
Cohen, Stephen S.
, and John Zysman. 1987. Manufacturing matters: The myth of the post-industrial economy. New York: Basic Books.
27.
Corcoran, Mary
, and Greg J. Duncan. 1979. Work history, labor force attachment, and earnings differences between the races and sexes. Journal of Human Resources14,4: 3-20.
28.
Cotter, David A.
, JoAnn M. DeFiore, and Joan M. Hermsen. 1995. Occupational gender segregation and the earnings gap: Changes in the 1980s. Social Science Research24, 4: 439-454.
29.
Council of Economic Advisors
. 1995. Economic report of the President. Transmitted to the Congress. February 1995.
30.
Coverman, S.1983. Gender, domestic labor, and wage inequality. American Sociological Review48, 5: 623-637.
31.
Cox, Kevin R.
, and Andrew Mair. 1991. From localised social structures to localities as agents. Environment and Planning A23, 2: 197-213.
32.
Dertouzos, James N.
, and Robert F. Schoeni. 1996. Preparing for welfare block grants: Issues facing California. In The new fiscal federalism and the social safety net: A view from California, James Hosek and Robert Levine, eds. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
33.
Dewar, Margaret E.
, Joan Fitzgerald, and Nancey Green Leigh. 1994. Introduction: Women's fortunes and economic restructuring. Economic Development Quarterly8, 2: 141-146.
34.
Duncan, Otis Dudley
, and Beverly Duncan. 1955. A methodological analysis of segregation indexes. American Sociological Review20, 1: 210-217.
35.
Eisinger, Peter K.1988. The rise of the entrepreneurial state: State and local economic development policy in the United States. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
36.
England, Paula
. 1992. Comparable worth: Theories and evidence. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine.
37.
Evans, Sara M.
, and Barbara J. Nelson. 1989. Wage justice, comparable worth and the paradox of technocratic reform. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
38.
Fainstein, Susan F.1990. Economics, politics, and development policy: The convergence of New York and London. In Beyond the city limits: Urban policy and economic restructuring in comparative perspective, John R Logan and Todd Swanstrom, eds. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
39.
Fasenfest, David
. 1986. Community politics and urban redevelopment: Poletown, Detroit, and General Motors. Urban Affairs Quarterly22, 1: 101-121.
40.
Franck, Karen A.1994. Questioning the American dream: Recent housing innovations in the United States. In Housing women, Rose Gilroy and Roberta Woods, eds. London: Routledge.
41.
Glass, Jennifer
, Marta Tienda, and Shelley A. Smith. 1988. The impact of changing employment opportunity on gender and ethnic earnings inequality. Social Science Research17, 3: 252-276.
42.
Goetz, Edward G.
, and Susan E. Clarke, eds. 1993. The new localism: Comparative urban politics in a global era. Newbury Park: Sage.
43.
Goldin, Claudia
. 1990. Understanding the gender gap: An economic history of American women. New York: Oxford University Press.
44.
Goldin, Claudia
, and Solomon Polachek. 1987. Residual differences by sex: Perspectives on the gender gap in earnings. American Economic Review77,5: 143-151.
45.
Goldsmith, William W.
, and Edward J. Blakely. 1992. Separate societies: Poverty and inequality in U.S. cities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
46.
Goodman, William
. 1994. Women and jobs in recoveries: 1970-93. Monthly Labor Review117, 7: 28-36.
47.
Greenstein, Robert
, Richard Kogan, and Marion Nichols. 1996. Bearing most of the burden: How deficit reduction during the 104th Congress concentrated on programs for the poor. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.
48.
Gurstein, Penny
. 1996. Planning for telework and home-based employment: Reconsidering the home/work separation. Journal of Planning Education and Research15, 3: 212-224.
49.
Handy, Susan
. 1993. Regional versus local accessibility: Neo-traditional development and its implications for non-work travel. Built Environment18,4: 253-267.
50.
Hanson,Susan
, and lbipo Johnston. 1985. Gender differences in work trip length: Explanations and implications. Urban Geography6, 3: 193-219.
51.
Harrison, Bennett
, and Barry Bluestone. 1988. The great U-turn: Corporate restructuring and the polarizing of America. New York: Basic Books.
52.
Hartmann, Heidi I.1987. Changes in women's economic and family roles in post-World War I United States. In Women, households and the economy, Lourdes Beneria and Catharine R. Stimpson, eds. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
53.
Hayden, Dolores
. 1981a. The grand domestic revolution: A history of feminist designs for American homes, neighborhoods and cities. Cambridge: MIT Press.
54.
Hayden, Dolores1981b. What would a non-sexist city be like? Speculations on housing, urban design, and human work In Women and the American city, Catharine R. Stimpson, Elsa Dixder, Martha J. Nelson, and Kathryn B. Yatrakis, eds. Chicago: University Chicago Press.
55.
Heggie, Richard
. 1992. Seaside under a polarized light. Town and Country Planning61, 9: 255-267.
56.
Hersch, Joni
. 1991a. The impact of nonmarket work on market wages. American Economic Review81, 2: 157-160.
57.
Hersch, Joni
. 1991b. Male-female differences in hourly wages: The role of human capital, worldng conditions, and housework. Industrial and Labor Relations Review44, 4: 746-759.
58.
Hofferth, Sandra L.
, April Brayfield, Sharon Deich, and Pamela Holcomb. 1991. National chid care survey, 1990. Urban Institute Report 91-5. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
59.
Hosek, James
, and Robert Levine. 1996. An introduction to the issues. In The new fiscal federalism and the social safety net: A view from Caliornia, James Hosek and Robert Levine, eds. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
60.
Houseman, Susan N.1995. Job growth and the quality of jobs in the U.S. economy. Labour: Review of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations. Special issue: S93-S124.
61.
Jacobs Jerry A.1993. Theoretical and measurement issues in the study of sex segregation in the workplace: Research note. European Sociological Review9, 3: 325-330.
62.
Jacobsen, Joyce P.1994. Sex segregation at work: Trends and predictions. Social Science Journal31, 2: 153-169.
63.
Jones, Bryan
, and Lynn Bachelor. 1984. Policy discretion and the corporate surplus. In Urban economic development, R Bingham and J. Blair eds. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
64.
Kalleberg, A. L.
, and Rachel A. Rosenfeld. 1990. Work in the family and in the labor market: Across-national reciprocal analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family52, 2: 331-346.
65.
King, Harriet
. 1990. Bonuses for day care in office towers. New York Times (October 14): R5-R5.
66.
King, Mary C.1992. Occupational segregation by race and sex. Monthly Labor Review115, 4: 30-37.
67.
Krumholz, Norman
. 1991. Equity and local economic development. Economic Development Quarterly5, 4: 291-300.
68.
Krumholz, Norman
, and Pierre Clavel. 1994. Reinventing cities: Equity planners tell their stories. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
69.
Krumholz, Norman
, and John Forester. 1990. Making equity planning work. Leadership in the public sector. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
70.
Lewis, Jane
. 1984. The role of female employment in the industrial restructuring and regional development of the United Kingdom. Antipode16, 3: 47-59.
71.
Lewis,Jane
, and Jo Foord. 1984. New towns and new gender relations in old industrial regions: Women's employment in Peterlee and East Kilbride. Built Environment10, 1: 42-52.
72.
Logan, John R.
, and Harvey L. Molotch. 1987. Urban fortunes: The political economy of place. Berkeley: University of California Press.
73.
Mackenzie, Suzanne
. 1989. Women in the city. In New models in geography: The political economy perspective, Richard Peet and Nigel Thrift, eds. London: Unwin Hyman.
74.
Madden, Janice
. 1985. The persistence of pay differentials: The economics of sex discrimination. Women and Work1: 76-114.
75.
Madden, Janice1981. Why women work closer to home. Urban Studies18, 2: 181-194.
76.
Markham, William T.
, and Joseph H. Pleck. 1986. Sex and willingness to move for occupational advancement: Some national sample results. Sociological Quarterly27, 1: 121-143.
77.
Markusen, Ann R.1981. City spatial structure, women's household work, and national urban policy. In Women and the American city, Catharine R. Stimpson, Elsa Dixler, Martha J. Nelson, and Kathryn B. Yatrakis, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
78.
Massey, Doreen
. 1994. Space, place, and gender. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
79.
May, Lee
. 1985. Rights panel rejects comparable worth pay. Los Angeles Times (April 12): II-II.
80.
Mier, Robert
. 1993. Social justice and local development policy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
81.
Molyneux, Maxine
. 1985. Mobilization without emancipation? Women's interests, state, and revolution in Nicaragua. Feminist Studies11, 2: 227-254.
82.
Moser, Caroline O. N.1993. Gender planning and development: Theory, practice and training. London: Routledge.
83.
Muniak, Dennis C.
, and Deborah A. Auger. 1995. The national government and U.S. cities in the post-Reagan/Bush era. Regional Studies29, 8: 737-744.
84.
National Committee on Pay Equity
. 1993. Pay equity in the public sector. 1993 addendum. Washington, DC: National Committee on Pay Equity.
85.
National Committee on Pay Equity1989. Pay equity activity in the public sector, 1979-1989. Full report. Washington, DC: National Committee on Pay Equity.
86.
Nelson, Kristen
. 1986. Labor demand, labor supply and the suburbanization of low-wage office work. In Production, work, territory: The geographical anatomy of industrial capitalism. Allen J. Scott and Michael Storper, eds. Boston: Allen and Unwin.
87.
Nicholson, Linda J.
, ed. 1990. Feminism/postmodernism. New York: Routledge.
88.
O'Neill, June
, and Solomon Polachek. 1993. Why the gender gap in wages narrowed in the 1980s. Journal of Labor Economics11,1: 205-228.
89.
Oppenheimer, Valerie Kincade
. 1970. The female labor force in the United States: Demographic and economic factors governing its growth and changing composition. Berkeley: University of California, Institute of International Studies.
90.
Pearce, Diana
. 1990. Welfare is not for women: Why the War on Poverty cannot conquer the feminization of poverty. In Women, the state and welfare, Linda Gordon, ed. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
91.
Peterson, Paul
. 1981. City limits. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
92.
Phelps, Edmund S.1972. The statistical theory of racism and sexism. American Economic Review62, 4: 659-661.
93.
Piore, Michael
, and Charles F. Sabel. 1984. The second industrial divide. New York: Basic Books.
94.
Polachek, Solomon W.1987. Occupational segregation and the gender wage gap. Population Research and Policy Review6, 1: 47-67.
95.
Presser, H. B.1994. Employment schedules among dual-earner spouses and the division of household labor by gender. American Sociological Review59, 3: 348-364.
96.
Ramos, George
, and Dan Morain. 1985. Equal-pay decision overturned. Los Angeles Times (September 5): I5-I5.
97.
Ritzdorf, Marsha
. 1995. Feminist contributions to ethics and planning theory. In Planning ethics: A reader in planning theory, practice and education, Sue Hendler, ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Policy Research.
98.
Ritzdorf, Marsha1994. A feminist analysis of gender and residential zoning in the United States. In Women and the environment, Irwin Altman and Arza Churchman, eds. New York: Plenum.
99.
Robinson, J. P.1988. Who's doing the housework?American Demographics10, 12: 24-28.
100.
Rogers, David L.
, and Willis J. Goudy. 1981. Community structure and occupational segregation, 1960 and 1970. Rural Sociology46,2: 263-281.
101.
Roos, Patricia A.
, and Barbara F. Reskin. 1992. Occupational desegregation in the 1970s: Integration and economic equity?Sociological Perspectives35, 1: 69-91.
102.
Rutherford, Brent M.
, and Gerda R. Wekerle. 1988. Captive rider, captive labor: Spatial constraints and women's employment. Urban Geography9, 2: 116-137.
103.
Ryscavage, Paul
. 1994. Gender-related shifts in the distribution of wages. Monthly Labor Review117, 7: 3-15.
104.
Sandercock, Leonie
, and Ann Forsyth. 1992. A gender agenda: New directions for planning theory. Journal of the American Planning Association58, 1: 49-59.
105.
Shelton, B. A.
, and J. Firestone. 1988. An examination of household labor time as a factor in composition and treatment effects on the male-female wage gap. Sociological Focus21, 3: 265-278.
106.
Smith, James P.
, and Michael P. Ward. 1985. Time-series growth in the female labor force. Journal of Labor Economics3, 1: S59-S90.
107.
Sorensen, Elaine
. 1994. Comparable worth: Is it a worthy policy?Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
108.
Sorensen, Elaine
.1990. The crowding hypothesis and comparable worth issue: A survey and new results. Journal of Human Resources25, 1: 55-89.
109.
Spalter-Roth, Roberta
, and Heidi Hartmann. 1992. Women in telecommunications: Exception to the rule of low pay for women's work. Washington, DC: Institute for Women's Policy Research.
110.
Spitze, Glenna
. 1986. Family migration largely unresponsive to wife's employment (across age groups). Sociology and Social Research70,3: 231-234.
111.
Stafford, M. Therese
, and Mark A. Fossett. 1989. Occupational sex inequality in the nonmetropolitan South, 1960-1980. Rural Sociology54,2:169-194.
112.
Steinberg, Ronnie J.1984. "Awant of harmony": Perspectives onwage discrimination and comparable worth. In Comparable worth and wage discrimination: Technical possibilities and political realities, Helen Remick, ed. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
113.
Strickland, Mary
, and Sara Burr. 1995. The importance of local, state, and federal programs for women entrepreneurs. Economic Development Quarterly9, 1: 87-90.
114.
Sward, Susan
. 1985. How S. F developer law will affect child care. San Francisco Chronicle (October 8): 2-2.
115.
Tinker, Irene
, ed. 1990. Persistent inequalities: Women and world development. New York: Oxford University Press.
116.
Treiman, Donald
, and Heidi Hartmann, eds. 1981. Women, work, and wages: Equal pay for jobs of equal value. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.
117.
Tumulty, Karen
. 1984. Equal pay idea called "loony"Los Angeles Times (November 17): I1-I1.
118.
Tzeng, Jessie M.
, and Robert D. Mare. 1995. Labor market and socio-economic effects on marital stability. Social Science Research24, 4: 329-351.
119.
U.S. Bureau of the Census
. 1998. Household and family characteristics: March 1997. Series P20-509. Current Population Reports. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
120.
U.S. Bureau of the Census
.1997a. Historical income tables-Persons. Tables P-29, P-29A, P-29B, P29-C, P-29D. March Current Population Survey. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
121.
U.S. Bureau of the Census
.1997b. Historical poverty tables-Persons. Table 7. March Current Population Survey. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
122.
U.S. Bureau of the Census
. 1997c. Poverty in the United States: 1996. Series P60-198. Current Population Reports. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
123.
U.S. Bureau of the Census
. 1997d. Statistical abstract of the United States. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
124.
U.S. Bureau of the Census
. 1996. Current Population Survey. Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census.
125.
U.S. Congress. House
. 1995. Overview of entitlement programs. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
126.
U.S. Department of Labor
. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1998. Employment and earnings. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
127.
Villeneuve, Paul
, and Damaris Rose. 1988. Gender and the separation of employment from home in metropolitan Montreal, 1971-1981. Urban Geography9, 2: 155-179.
128.
Walby, S.
, and P. Bagguley. 1989. Gender restructuring: Five labour markets compared. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space7: 277-292.
129.
Walsh, Joan
. 1986. Family ties: Feminism's next frontier. The Progressive50,2: 21-23.
130.
Weisman, Leslie Kanes
. 1992. Discrimination by design: A feminist critique of the man-made ronment. Urbana: University of Illinois Pres.
131.
Wellington, Allison J.1993. Changes in the male/female wage gap, 1976-85. Journal of Human Resources28,1: 83-141.
132.
Wilson, WilliamJulius
. 1987. The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
133.
Wright, Gwendolyn
. 1980. Moralism and the model home: Domestic architecture and cultural conflict in Chicago, 1873-1913. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
134.
Young, Kate
. 1993. Planning development with women: Making a world of diference. New York: St. Martin's.
135.
Zedlewski, Sheila
, Sandra Clark, Eric Meier, and Keith Watson. 1996. Potential effects of congressional welfare reform legislation on family incomes. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
136.
Zeitz, Baila
, and Lorraine Dusky. 1988. The best companies for women. New York: Simon and Schuster.