Large numbers of people in many countries report being lonely with rates highest among the very old. Does the built environment affect loneliness among older people and if so, how? Using a scoping review, we examined associations between loneliness and built environments at the block, neighborhood, and city scales. The (1) neighborhood environment has received most attention. Research has also examined (2) urban contexts, (3) housing, and (4) transportation access. Findings are mixed with the stronger evidence that local resources, walkability, overall environment quality, housing options, and nearby transportation alternatives can help combat loneliness.
AyalonLiatGreenVarda. 2013. “Social Ties in the Context of the Continuing Care Retirement Community.” Qualitative Health Research23 (3): 396–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732312468506.
2.
BaltesPaul B.BaltesMargret M.. 1990. “Psychological Perspectives on Successful Aging: The Model of Selective Optimization with Compensation.” In Successful Aging: Perspectives From the Behavioral Sciences, 1–34. New York, N.Y., USA: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511665684.003.
BealClaudia. 2006. “Loneliness in Older Women: A Review of the Literature.” Issues in Mental Health Nursing27 (7): 795–813. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840600781196.
5.
BeerePaulKeelingSallyJamiesonHamish. 2019. “Ageing, Loneliness, and the Geographic Distribution of New Zealand’s InterRAI-HC Cohort.” Social Science & Medicine, SSM:2017 Medical Geography symposium, 227 (April): 84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.08.002.
6.
BergefurtLisanneKempermanAstridvan den BergPaulineBorgersAloysvan der WaerdenPeterOosterhuisGertHommelMarco. 2019. “Loneliness and Life Satisfaction Explained by Public-Space Use and Mobility Patterns.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health16 (21): 4282. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214282.
7.
BondevikMargarethSkogstadAnders. 1996. “Loneliness among the Oldest Old, A Comparison Between Residents Living in Nursing Homes and Residents Living in the Community.” The International Journal of Aging and Human Development43 (3): 181–97. https://doi.org/10.2190/9C14-NHUX-XQPL-GA5J.
8.
BoothAndrewPapaioannouDianaSuttonAnthea. 2012. Systematic Approaches to A Successful Literature Review. 1st Edition.Los Angeles: SAGE.
9.
BoydMichalCalvertCherylTattonAnnieWuZhenqiangBloomfieldKatherineBroadJoanna B.HikakaJoannaHigginsAnn-MarieConnollyMartin J.. 2020. “Lonely in A Crowd: Loneliness in New Zealand Retirement Village Residents.” International Psychogeriatrics1–13. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610220000393.
10.
BrimelowRachel E.WollinJudy A.. 2017. “Loneliness in Old Age: Interventions to Curb Loneliness in Long-Term Care Facilities.” Activities, Adaptation & Aging41 (4): 301–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924788.2017.1326766.
ChenYuHicksAllanWhileAlison E.. 2014. “Loneliness and Social Support of Older People in China: A Systematic Literature Review.” Health & Social Care in the Community22 (2): 113–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12051.
13.
Cohen-MansfieldJiskaHazanHaimLermanYaffaShalomVera. 2016. “Correlates and Predictors of Loneliness in Older-Adults: A Review of Quantitative Results Informed by Qualitative Insights.” International Psychogeriatrics28 (4): 557–76. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610215001532.
CrispDimity A.WindsorTim D.ButterworthPeterAnsteyKaarin J.. 2015. “Adapting to Retirement Community Life: Changes in Social Networks and Perceived Loneliness.” Journal of Relationships Research6 (e9): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1017/jrr.2015.5.
16.
DangJunwuJingLi, eds. 2019. 中国老年人生活质量发展报告(2019)/老龄蓝皮书 [Development Report on the Quality of Life for the Elderly in China (2019)/Blue Book of Ageing]. Beijing: Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press (China).
17.
de Jong GierveldJenny. 1998. “A Review of Loneliness: Concept and Definitions, Determinants and Consequences.” Reviews in Clinical Gerontology8 (1): 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959259898008090.
18.
DickensAndy P.RichardsSuzanne H.GreavesColin J.CampbellJohn L.. 2011. “Interventions Targeting Social Isolation in Older People: A Systematic Review.” BMC Public Health11 (1): 647. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-647[22 pages online only].
Di NardoFrancescoSaulleRosellaLa TorreGiuseppe. 2010. “Green Areas and Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review of the Scientific Literature.” Italian Journal of Public Health7 (4): 402–413. https://doi.org/10.2427/5699.
21.
Domènech-AbellaJoanMundóJordiLaraElviraMonetaMaria VictoriaHaroJosep MariaOlayaBeatriz. 2017. “The Role of Socio-Economic Status and Neighborhood Social Capital on Loneliness among Older Adults: Evidence From the Sant Boi Aging Study.” Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology52 (10): 1237–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-017-1406-9.
22.
Domènech-AbellaJoanMundóJordiLeonardiMatildeChatterjiSomnathTobiasz-AdamczykBeataKoskinenSeppoAyuso-MateosJose LuisHaroJosep MariaOlayaBeatriz. 2020a. “Loneliness and Depression among Older European Adults: The Role of Perceived Neighborhood Built Environment.” Health & Place62: 102280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2019.102280.
23.
Domènech-AbellaJoanSwitsersLiseMundóJordiDierckxEvaDurySarahDe DonderLiesbeth. 2020b. “The Association Between Perceived Social and Physical Environment and Mental Health among Older Adults: Mediating Effects of Loneliness.” Aging & Mental Health0 (0): 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1727853.
DykstraPearl A.van TilburgTheo G.de Jong GierveldJenny. 2005. “Changes in Older Adult Loneliness: Results From A Seven-Year Longitudinal Study.” Research on Aging27 (6): 725–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027505279712.
26.
Ferreira-AlvesJoséMagalhãesPaulaViolaLaraSimoesRicardo. 2014. “Loneliness in Middle and Old Age: Demographics, Perceived Health, and Social Satisfaction as Predictors.” Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics59 (3): 613–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2014.06.010.
27.
FinlayJessica M.KobayashiLindsay C.. 2018. “Social Isolation and Loneliness in Later Life: A Parallel Convergent Mixed-Methods Case Study of Older Adults and Their Residential Contexts in the Minneapolis Metropolitan Area, USA.” Social Science & Medicine208 (July): 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.05.010.
28.
ForsythAnn. 2015. “What Is A Walkable Place? The Walkability Debate in Urban Design.” Urban Design International20 (4): 274–92. https://doi.org/10.1057/udi.2015.22.
GardinerClareGeldenhuysGideonGottMerryn. 2018. “Interventions to Reduce Social Isolation and Loneliness among Older People: An Integrative Review.” Health & Social Care in the Community26 (2): 147–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12367.
31.
GasconMireiaTriguero-MasMargaritaMartínezDavidDadvandPayamFornsJoanPlasènciaAntoniNieuwenhuijsenMark J.. 2015. “Mental Health Benefits of Long-Term Exposure to Residential Green and Blue Spaces: A Systematic Review.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health12 (4): 4354–79. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120404354.
32.
GibneySarahZhangMengyangBrennanCathal. 2020. “Age-Friendly Environments and Psychosocial Wellbeing: A Study of Older Urban Residents in Ireland.” Aging & Mental Health24 (12): 2022–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1652246.
33.
GolantStephen M. 2011. “The Quest for Residential Normalcy by Older Adults: Relocation but One Pathway.” Journal of Aging Studies, Special Section: Age and the Cultivation of Place, 25 (3): 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2011.03.003.
34.
GrayAnneWorlledgeGeorge. 2018. “Addressing Loneliness and Isolation in Retirement Housing.” Ageing & Society38 (3): 615–44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X16001239.
35.
HaganRobert J. 2020. “Getting out of the House: The Use of Community Transport as A Third Place for Rural-Dwelling Older Adults.” Ageing & Society40 (11): 2519–39. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X19000722.
36.
Henning-SmithCarrieMoscoviceIraKozhimannilKaty. 2019. “Differences in Social Isolation and Its Relationship to Health by Rurality.” The Journal of Rural Health35 (4): 540–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/jrh.12344.
37.
JesteDilip V.GloriosoDanielleLeeEllen E.DalyRebeccaGrahamSarahLiuJinyuanParedesAlejandra Morlett, et al. 2019. “Study of Independent Living Residents of A Continuing Care Senior Housing Community: Sociodemographic and Clinical Associations of Cognitive, Physical, and Mental Health.” American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry27 (9): 895–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2019.04.002.
38.
KanHar YeForsythAnnMolinskyJennifer. 2020. “Measuring the Built Environment for Aging in Place: A Review of Neighborhood Audit Tools.” Journal of Planning Literature 35 (2): 180–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412220903497.
39.
KearnsAdeWhitleyEliseTannahillCarolEllawayAnne. 2015. “‘Lonesome Town’? Is Loneliness Associated with the Residential Environment, Including Housing and Neighborhood Factors?” Journal of Community Psychology43 (7): 849–67. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21711.
40.
KempermanAstridvan den BergPaulineWeijs-PerréeMinouUijtdewillegenKevin. 2019. “Loneliness of Older Adults: Social Network and the Living Environment.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health16 (3): 406. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030406.
41.
KhanKhalid S.KunzReginaKleijnenJosAntesGerd. 2003. “Five Steps to Conducting A Systematic Review.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine96 (3): 118–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/014107680309600304.
KowittSarah D.AielloAllison E.CallahanLeigh F.FisherEdwin B.GottfredsonNisha C.JordanJoanne M.MuessigKathryn E.. 2020. “Associations among Neighborhood Poverty, Perceived Neighborhood Environment, and Depressed Mood Are Mediated by Physical Activity, Perceived Individual Control, and Loneliness.” Health & Place62 (March): 102278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2019.102278.
44.
LawtonM. PowellNahemowLucille. 1973. “Ecology and the Aging Process.” In The Psychology of Adult Development and Aging619–74. Washington, D.C., USA: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10044-020.
45.
LeeJi HeiTanTeck Hong. 2019. “Neighborhood Walkability or Third Places? Determinants of Social Support and Loneliness among Older Adults.” Journal of Planning Education and Research, (August). https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X19870295.
46.
LiShengxiao(Alex). 2020. “Living Environment, Mobility, and Wellbeing among Seniors in the United States: A New Interdisciplinary Dialogue.” Journal of Planning Literature35 (3): 298–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412220914993.
47.
LienLaura L.SteggellCarmen D.IwarssonSusanne. 2015. “Adaptive Strategies and Person-Environment Fit among Functionally Limited Older Adults Aging in Place: A Mixed Methods Approach.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health12 (9): 11954–74. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120911954.
48.
MaasJolandavan DillenSonja M. E.VerheijRobert A.GroenewegenPeter P.. 2009. “Social Contacts as A Possible Mechanism Behind the Relation Between Green Space and Health.” Health & Place15 (2): 586–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2008.09.006.
49.
MatsudaNaokaMurataShunsukeTorizawaKohtarohIsaTsunenoriEbinaAoiKondoYukiTsuboiYamato, et al. 2019. “Association Between Public Transportation Use and Loneliness Among Urban Elderly People Who Stop Driving.” Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine (January). https://doi.org/10.1177/2333721419851293.
50.
MenecVerena H.NewallNancy E.MackenzieCorey S.ShooshtariShahinNowickiScott. 2019. “Examining Individual and Geographic Factors Associated with Social Isolation and Loneliness Using Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA) Data.” PLOS ONE14 (2): e0211143. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211143.
51.
MunnZacharyPetersMicah D. J.SternCindyTufanaruCatalinMcArthurAlexaAromatarisEdoardo. 2018. “Systematic Review or Scoping Review? Guidance for Authors When Choosing Between A Systematic or Scoping Review Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology18 (1): 143. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-018-0611-x.
52.
NyqvistFredricaCattanMimaConradssonMiaNäsmanMarinaGustafssonYngve. 2017. “Prevalence of Loneliness Over Ten Years among the Oldest Old.” Scandinavian Journal of Public Health45 (4): 411–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494817697511.
53.
OngAnthony D.UchinoBert N.WethingtonElaine. 2016. “Loneliness and Health in Older Adults: A Mini-Review and Synthesis.” Gerontology62 (4): 443–49. https://doi.org/10.1159/000441651.
ParkSo-YoungKimMiriChungSoondool. 2020. “Age-Friendly Environments and Depressive Symptoms among Korean Adults: The Mediating Effects of Loneliness.” Aging & Mental Health, April. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2020.1755827.
56.
PaúlConstançaFonsecaAntónio M.MartínIgnácioAmadoJoão. 2003. “Psychosocial Profile of Rural and Urban Elders in Portugal.” European Psychologist, Psychology of Aging in Europe, 8 (3): 160–67. https://doi.org/10.1027//1016-9040.8.3.160.
57.
PerissinottoCarla M.CenzerIrena StijacicCovinskyKenneth E.. 2012. “Loneliness in Older Persons: A Predictor of Functional Decline and Death.” Archives of Internal Medicine172 (14): 1078–84. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2012.1993.
58.
PinquartMartinSorensenSilvia. 2001. “Influences on Loneliness in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology23 (4): 245–66. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2304_2.
59.
Prieto-FloresMaria-EugeniaFernandez-MayoralasGloriaForjazMaria JoãoRojo-PerezFerminaMartinez-MartinPablo. 2011a. “Residential Satisfaction, Sense of Belonging and Loneliness among Older Adults Living in the Community and in Care Facilities.” Health & Place17 (6): 1183–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2011.08.012.
60.
Prieto-FloresMaria-EugeniaForjazMaria JoãoFernandez-MayoralasGloriaRojo-PerezFerminaMartinez-MartinPablo. 2011b. “Factors Associated With Loneliness of Noninstitutionalized and Institutionalized Older Adults.” Journal of Aging and Health23 (1): 177–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264310382658.
61.
PunVivian C.ManjouridesJustinSuhHelen H.. 2019. “Close Proximity to Roadway and Urbanicity Associated with Mental Ill-Health in Older Adults.” Science of The Total Environment658 (March): 854–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.221.
62.
RantakokkoMerjaIwarssonSusanneVahaluotoSatuPortegijsErjaViljanenAnneRantanenTaina. 2014. “Perceived Environmental Barriers to Outdoor Mobility and Feelings of Loneliness Among Community-Dwelling Older People.” The Journals of Gerontology: Series A69 (12): 1562–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glu069.
ReinhardEricaCourtinEmilievan LentheFrank J.AvendanoMauricio. 2018. “Public Transport Policy, Social Engagement and Mental Health in Older Age: A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of Free Bus Passes in England.” Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health72 (5): 361–68. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2017-210038.
65.
SavikkoN.RoutasaloP.TilvisR.S.StrandbergT.E.PitkäläK.H.. 2005. “Predictors and Subjective Causes of Loneliness in an Aged Population.” Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics41 (3): 223–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2005.03.002.
66.
ScharfThomasde Jong GierveldJenny. 2008. “Loneliness in Urban Neighbourhoods: An Anglo-Dutch Comparison.” European Journal of Ageing5 (2): 103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10433-008-0080-x.
StaffordGloria E. 2017. “Maintaining Residential Normalcy Through Self-Initiated Assimilative and Accommodative Coping While Aging-in-Place.” Housing and Society44 (1–2): 22–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/08882746.2017.1389560.
SyedM. AnumMcDonaldLynnSmirleCorinneLauKarenMirzaRaza M.HitzigSander L.. 2017. “Social Isolation in Chinese Older Adults: Scoping Review for Age-Friendly Community Planning.” Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement36 (2): 223–45. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0714980817000101.
71.
TimmermansErikMotocIrinaMark NoordzijJ.BeenackersMarielle A.WissaRitaSarrAliouGurerAsli, et al. 2020. “Social and Physical Neighbourhood Characteristics and Loneliness among Older Adults: Results From the MINDMAP Project.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, November. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2020-214217.
72.
TriccoAndrea C.LillieErinZarinWasifaO’BrienKelly K.ColquhounHeatherLevacDanielleMoherDavid, et al. 2018. “PRISMA for Scoping Reviews.” Annals of Internal Medicine169 (7): 467–73. https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850.
73.
TruongKhoa D.MaSai. 2006. “A Systematic Review of Relations Between Neighborhoods and Mental Health.” The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics9 (3): 137–54. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-12709-004
74.
TsiboeAriel Kwegyir. 2020. “Exploring the Nature of Loneliness among Older People in Rural Ghana.” The American Journal of Family Therapy0 (0): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2020.1837034.
van BilsenPascalle M. A.HamersJan P. H.GrootWimSpreeuwenbergCor. 2008. “Sheltered Housing Compared to Independent Housing in the Community.” Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences22 (2): 265–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00529.x.
77.
van den BergPaulineKempermanAstridde KleijnBoyBorgersAloys. 2016. “Ageing and Loneliness: The Role of Mobility and the Built Environment.” Travel Behaviour and Society5 (September): 48–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2015.03.001.
78.
van den BergMagdalena M.van PoppelMireillevan KampIreneRuijsbroekAnnemarieTriguero-MasMargaritaGidlowChristofferNieuwenhuijsenMark J., et al. 2019. “Do Physical Activity, Social Cohesion, and Loneliness Mediate the Association Between Time Spent Visiting Green Space and Mental Health?” Environment and Behavior51 (2): 144–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916517738563.
79.
VictorChristina R.PikhartovaJitka. 2020. “Lonely Places or Lonely People? Investigating the Relationship Between Loneliness and Place of Residence.” Bmc Public Health20 (1): 778. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08703-8.
80.
VictorChristinaScamblerSashaBondJohnBowlingAnn. 2000. “Being Alone in Later Life: Loneliness, Social Isolation and Living Alone.” Reviews in Clinical Gerontology10 (4): 407–17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959259800104101.
81.
Vitman SchorrAdiKhalailaRabia. 2018. “Aging in Place and Quality of Life among the Elderly in Europe: A Moderated Mediation Model.” Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics77 (July): 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2018.04.009.
82.
WahlHans-WernerIwarssonSusanneOswaldFrank. 2012. “Aging Well and the Environment: Toward an Integrative Model and Research Agenda for the Future.” The Gerontologist52 (3): 306–16. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnr154.
83.
WeeLiang EnTsangTammy Yun YingYiHusoTohSue AnneLeeGeok LingYeeJaimeLeeShannonOenKellynnKohGerald Choon Huat. 2019. “Loneliness Amongst Low-Socioeconomic Status Elderly Singaporeans and Its Association with Perceptions of the Neighbourhood Environment.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health16 (6): 967. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16060967.
84.
WeissRobert S.1973. Loneliness: The Experience of Emotional and Social Isolation. Cambridge, MA, USA: The MIT Press.
85.
YanZhiminYangXunWangLeiZhaoYuhanYuLin. 2014. “Social Change and Birth Cohort Increase in Loneliness among Chinese Older Adults: A Cross-Temporal Meta-Analysis, 1995–2011.” International Psychogeriatrics26 (11): 1773–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610214000921.
86.
YangKemingVictorChristina R.. 2008. “The Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Loneliness among Older People in China.” Ageing & Society28 (3): 305–27. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X07006848.
YuRubyCheungOsbertLauKevinWooJean. 2017. “Associations Between Perceived Neighborhood Walkability and Walking Time, Wellbeing, and Loneliness in Community-Dwelling Older Chinese People in Hong Kong.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health14 (10): 1199. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101199.
89.
YuR.LeungG.ChanJ.YipB. H. K.WongS.KwokT.WooJ.. 2021. “Neighborhood Social Cohesion Associates with Loneliness Differently among Older People According to Subjective Social Status.” The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging25 (1): 41–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-020-1496-z.
